The quality of culinary products is understood as a set of consumer properties that determine its suitability to satisfy people's need for rational nutrition. The indicators of the quality of culinary products are harmlessness, high nutritional and commercial qualities.
The combination of useful properties of culinary products is characterized by nutritional value, organoleptic characteristics, digestibility, safety.
The nutritional value - this is a complex property that combines energy, biological, physiological value, as well as digestibility, safety.
The energy value characterized by the amount of energy released from food substances in the process of their biological oxidation.
biological value It is determined mainly by the quality of food proteins - digestibility and the degree of balance of the amino acid composition.
Physiological value due to the presence of substances that have an active effect on the human body (beet saponins, coffee and tea caffeine, etc.).
Organoleptic indicators (appearance, texture, color, smell, taste) characterize the subjective attitude of a person to food and are determined using the senses.
The term "organoleptic" comes from the Greek words "organon" (tool, tool, organ) and "leptikos" (inclined to take or receive) and means "revealed with the help of the senses." In foreign literature, the term “sensory” is predominantly common (from Latin “sensus” - feeling, sensation).
Along with physicochemical, i.e., instrumental, methods of analysis, organoleptic evaluation of the quality of food products is of great importance. The results of organoleptic analysis are always decisive in determining the quality of new products, regardless of their nutritional value. Organoleptic control is also necessary when conducting new accelerated technological processes for obtaining traditional food products.
Organoleptic evaluation - this is an assessment of the response of the human senses to the properties of the food product as an object under study, determined using qualitative and quantitative methods. A qualitative assessment is expressed using verbal descriptions (descriptors), and a quantitative assessment, characterizing the intensity of sensation, is expressed in numbers (scales) or graphically.
Taste - a sensation resulting from the interaction of a taste stimulus with receptors, reflecting the properties of the stimulus and the physiological characteristics of the individual.
Smell - a sensation resulting from the interaction of an olfactory stimulus with receptors, reflecting the properties of the stimulus and the physiological characteristics of the individual.
Texture - the macrostructure of a food product, i.e., the system of mutual arrangement of its structural elements, organoleptically characterized by a complex of visual, auditory and tactile sensations that arise when the product is chewed. Texture is described in terms of: fibrous, layered, porous, homogeneous, hard, elastic, plastic, hard, soft, tender, sticky, sticky, brittle, crumbly, crispy, etc.
flavor- a complex sensation in the oral cavity caused by the taste, smell and texture of the food product.
Taste and olfactory sensitivity is called chemical, since the excitation of the corresponding receptors occurs as a result of a "chemical analysis" of molecules dissolved in saliva (taste) or in the air (smell). Traditionally, there are four types of taste sensations: sweet, sour, salty and bitter.
digestibility - the degree of use of food components by the human body.
Safety - this is the absence of an unacceptable risk associated with the possibility of causing damage to human health (life). If the permissible level of safety indicators is exceeded, culinary products are transferred to the category of dangerous. Dangerous products must be destroyed.
There are the following types of safety of culinary products: chemical, sanitary and hygienic, radiation.
Chemical safety - the absence of an unacceptable risk that can be caused by toxic substances to the life and health of consumers. Substances affecting the chemical safety of culinary products are divided into the following groups: toxic elements (heavy metal salts); mycotoxins, nitrates and nitrites, pesticides, antibiotics; hormonal drugs; prohibited food additives and dyes.
Sanitary and hygienic safety - the absence of an unacceptable risk that may arise from microbiological and biological contamination of culinary products caused by bacteria and fungi. At the same time, toxic substances accumulate in the products (mycotoxins during molding, toxins of botulinum, salmonella, staphylococcus, E. coli, etc.), which cause poisoning of varying severity.
Radiation safety - the absence of an unacceptable risk that can be inflicted on the life and health of consumers by radioactive substances or their ionizing radiation.
Konstantin Khasin, Alexander Midler
SPICES
HEALING AND CULINARY PROPERTIES
Publishing house "Society SATTVA"
Ayurvedic clinic in Rishikesh, Dr. Portal Chohan -
Director of the Ayurvedic Jiva Institute in Faridabad, Dr.
spices and lecture courses on Ayurveda.
Scientific editor cand. honey. Sciences D. A. Kazbekova Artist V. Goloverov
ISBN 5-8007-0019-2
© Khasin K.M., 2000
© Midler A.P., 2000
© Goloverov V., 2000: design.
^ JOURNEY TO THE WORLD OF SPICES
For thousands of years mankind has used spices in their lives. Their importance cannot be overestimated, because in ancient times, spices served as a necessary component of food, and medicine, and even an object of worship. For ancient civilizations, spices were a great treasure and a measure of wealth and power. In search of new lands where these exotic plants grew, round-the-world travels and conquests, and later colonial wars, were made. Spices helped our ancestors to expand the boundaries of this world, to discover many wonders and secrets.
We offer to make a "journey into the world of spices", which today are able to change our lives, make it exciting and enjoyable. This journey will allow you to learn about the unique properties of spices that was known to people in the days of the Old Testament. And this will be the first step to health. We are sure that this journey makes sense.
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ABOUT THE PRINCIPAL POSSIBILITY OF TREATMENT WITH SPICES
As you know, people love delicious food. And this often leads to loss of health.
This book aims to ensure that you eat well and - as a result - recover. And if you're healthy, don't get sick.
It will be about special food treatment. Treatment with spices. We also call them spices.
Spicy is a Russian word that means spicy, odorous, pleasant to taste. True, some share these concepts. Often salt, sugar and vinegar are referred to as spices, and spicy-aromatic plants are referred to as spices.
We believe that spices and spices are all species (translated from Latin - this is something worthy of admiration).
We offer a story about the culinary and medicinal properties of spices. About how to make the process of healing from dozens of diseases not only easy, but also enjoyable, because the medicine will be tasty.
Each spice in this book is dedicated to a separate story, culinary recipes and recommendations for its medical use are given. And certainly something about the chemical composition of the spice, so that the reader, having found out that he lacks one or another vitamin or microelement, does not run to the pharmacy, but correctly adds spices to food and becomes healthy and satisfied. Note that the accompanying pleasure from food and good mood is also an effective medicine.
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BRIDGE TO HEALTH
Spices have a wonderful ability to be a bridge to health. Let's explain this.
There are many health systems. The authors of some say: eat everything raw, others - eat everything boiled. Some - do not salt, others - do not eat anything at all. The inconsistency of these methods can confuse anyone.
Every theory has followers. And rightly so, because they were created by thinking people. And they did get better. They were helped by what they discovered for themselves.
Trust in the irrefutable facts of the recovery of the author of any system and his followers sometimes pushes readers to experiment. We are starting to try. Someone eats on different systems. Someone is starving. Some drink urine. But not everyone achieves good results. Sometimes recovery does not occur.
What's the matter? The reason is that the authors of these wellness methods often build them, in fact, for themselves. For some people (and there are many of them), fasting is beneficial. Or eat only raw vegetables.
But what is medicine for one may be poison for another. And even the most reputable scientist can be mistaken, relying only on the results of efforts to improve their own health. We are all very different, each of us has our own way of life, features of the body, constitution and many, many other characteristics that determine our individuality, which cannot be accommodated within the framework of any system, even a very good one, but suitable only for a certain group people.
The same applies to the usual, or traditional, diet. Often we are forced to eat what the catering system offers, or what the wife (mother, mother-in-law, mother-in-law, etc.) knows how to cook, or what is considered a delicacy. And what are our "holiday tables" worth! After the feast, cramps and pains in the abdomen, heaviness in the stomach, hepatic colic and, excuse me, diarrhea or constipation begin. But tradition is tradition...
And yet, finding ourselves in a situation where, having no opportunity (desire, strength, means), we are forced to accept food that is unfavorable for us, we, however, are able to minimize its harmful effects with the help of spices. In this sense, spices play the role of bridges to health. A variety of spices and their properties allows us to choose what suits us, what we like and what is useful.
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SPECIAL APPROACH TO YOURSELF
In order to accurately select in food what is good for your health, you need to be guided, of course, by taste, knowledge of ancient medicine and experiment. Since this approach to oneself is associated in our book with the selection of spices, we will call it special approaches.
Let's start our experience with those products that seem to be obviously useful. Take, for example, cottage cheese. There is no doubt that cottage cheese is a wonderful food. But nutritionists note that it increases the amount of mucus in the body and often creates problems for the nasopharynx, bronchi, lungs, and “locks” the throat. Cottage cheese is well digested when, as they said in the old days, you have already kindled the fire of digestion. And if the fire of digestion is weak, what happens to curd products? They are digested with great difficulty, resembling raw firewood in a small fire. The fire can be strengthened by putting dry twigs in the fire. Well, in cottage cheese dishes, adding warming spices: cinnamon, nutmeg or black pepper.
Let's continue our experiment, let's try to imagine cottage cheese with black pepper? Strange flavor combination, at first glance. But for people with weak digestion, it is really useful. Adding black pepper to cottage cheese will increase the fire of digestion, as if throwing dry firewood into the fire.
There are people of the opposite type, whose digestive fire is in most cases strong. These people are distinguished by their wolfish appetite. If they do not eat on time, they become aggressive. The feeling of hunger is accompanied by a burning sensation in the stomach. Such eaters will digest cottage cheese without black pepper. Cooling spices such as coriander and fennel can help soothe the burning sensation or neutralize the effects of overeating, which they usually suffer from overeating.
The feeling of heaviness after eating will quickly disappear, the bloated stomach will subside, discomfort will disappear, and even problems associated not only with digestion, but also with the general emotional state will be resolved.
This is the rare case when treatment brings pleasure without deprivation and violence against oneself.
It is also clear that different people and even the same person at different times of the year and under different circumstances need to adjust the menu.
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FORGOTTEN CIVILIZATION OF SPICES
India and China are considered to be the geographical and historical birthplace of this civilization. The Chinese emperor Shen Nung, who lived 34 centuries ago, described in the first Chinese herbalist - "Classic of Herbs" - spices that can cure various diseases. Shen Nung was not only a theorist, but also a practitioner. He demanded that his subjects eat ginger, as it makes the skin smooth and gives the body a pleasant smell. And this is true. Shen Nung was such a healthy person that he could have lived much longer than he did. But he got carried away, began to test the effect of poisonous plants on himself. The emperor's maximalism and desire to bring the experiment with poisonous plants to the end led to a tragic result. The indications left by Nung about spices that heal food and at the same time make it very tasty are still interesting.
Another Chinese phenomenon is also known - Li Chang Yun, who was born in 1677 and died in 1933 at the age of 256, which is recorded in official documents and reflected in scientific literature. By the time of Lee's death, Chang Yun was living with his twenty-fourth wife. Yun ate only what he grew in his garden, that is, he was a vegetarian and spent short fasts. Every day, at a certain time (apparently, he knew secret spice science), he used spices, which he also grew on his plot.
With reverence for herbs and spices were treated in ancient India. From ancient books came to us the story of the famous Indian healer Atreya, who lived more than a thousand years ago. “Once upon a time, a young man named Ji-waka approached Atreya with a request to teach him medicine. With no money, Jivaka offered to work as a servant as payment for his education. For seven years Jivaka served as a teacher and participated in the healing of hundreds of patients. Once, an apprentice servant asked when the training would end. Atreya made no answer and directed him to the field behind the house, asking him to bring some of any plants that were not suitable for medicinal purposes. Jivaka walked for a long time and when he returned, he said: “Sorry, teacher, apparently I did not study well. I have not found a single plant that is not suitable for treatment.
Now,” said Atreya, “go. You are already a doctor."
For Atreya knew - any plant can become a medicine. Spices were isolated by Atreya from thousands of plants as the most effective means to improve digestion. We must agree with the sage: without this there can be no good health.
The ancient Indian medicine Ayurveda (Ayus in Sanskrit - life, Veda - knowledge) included the doctrine of cooking with spices. The exact time of writing the most famous Ayurvedic treatises "Charaka Samhita" and "Sushruta Samhita" is unknown. It is known that for the last fifteen hundred years they have been in an unchanged state. These books contain a mass of recipes with spices for the treatment of various diseases.
Modern Ayurvedic preparations, made in accordance with the ancient tradition, also certainly contain spice components in a wide variety of combinations.
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EGYPT, USA, SPAIN, RUSSIA
When excavating the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs, archaeologists have found seeds of spices many times. The more noble and revered a person was during his lifetime, the more magnificent his funeral and burial place were, and the more likely it was that he would be buried with spices. It was believed that without spices, the afterlife could not please the deceased. How the soul of the deceased could react to this is unknown, but his body is definitely bad. Spices have strong antiseptic properties and create a downright unbearable environment for any putrefactive bacteria and bacilli. It has long been noticed that dishes containing spices retain freshness longer than usual. Pharaoh, like all of us, is a perishable “product”. And therefore, the use of spices when embalming in a hot climate is simply necessary, they play the role of preservatives for a noble person.
In ancient times, the quality of spices was so strict that a modern spice merchant in medieval Germany would have been burned alive for selling fakes. Today, of course, this will not happen: in our market it costs nothing to pass one spice for another - instead of saffron, turmeric or add something to the spice for weight, etc.
Unfortunately, the culture of using spices, knowledge of their properties and capabilities has almost been lost. Therefore, our food is not very tasty, even coarse - only salty, only spicy, only sweet. At best, modest combinations of these three tastes. Is it an achievement to limit your worldview to a black and white TV?
Due to the loss of the spice culture, one of the most profitable businesses in the pharmaceutical and food industries has become the production of nutritional supplements. American pharmacists encapsulate saffron, turmeric, fennel, cayenne pepper, ginger. We sometimes do not realize that it is 15-20 times cheaper to buy a bag of spices than something in capsules. Despite the fact that 100 grams of pure spice costs less than a dollar in the store, there are eccentrics who buy such "food novelties" up to $ 18 per 100 grams. A Spaniard, for example, cannot be forced to take capsules of saffron (it's like asking a Russian to take brown bread or potatoes in capsules). Because, growing saffron at home, the Spaniards have long been accustomed to using it in everyday life. You can't fool them with capsules. Especially the Indians and Chinese, whose culture of using spices is still at a high level today.
It must be admitted that in Russia people have always treated the new, especially the new in food - very carefully. This is putting it mildly. For example, when potatoes and tomatoes were still rare in Russia, bloody “tomato riots” broke out. It was not so easy to force the peasants to eat this overseas red unsweetened "fruit", even under the threat of being beaten to death with lashes. As for the "introduction" of potatoes, according to some sources, often mortally frightened people simply confused the tubers with poisonous inflorescences and fruits. As a result of numerous poisonings - the "potato" riot of 1842 in the Perm province, the largest popular unrest of the 19th century.
Despite the fact that in modern Russia most spices are still perceived as exotic, we hope that spice riots can be avoided. In Russia, fortunately, something was known about spices before. For example, Russian gingerbread is a biscuit with spices. In Russia, gingerbread cookies have also been famous since ancient times. Before the revolution, spice shops were everywhere.
As for the medicinal properties of spices, today even less is known about them than about culinary ones.
And meanwhile, how many troubles could be avoided with the help of spices, maybe even change world history! Let us recall the novel by Mikhail Bulgakov "The Master and Margarita", the procurator of Judea, Pontius Pilate, who suffered from monstrous migraine attacks - a fact, apparently, historical. If the Roman procurator had not had migraines (correctly using ginger, cloves or saffron), who can say how those distant events would have ended?
However, probably, this story would have happened without the will of Pilate. Here are some things that could have been prevented. It is very likely, for example, that Boris Yeltsin could have avoided such a complex operation as coronary bypass surgery if he had regularly eaten saffron, cardamom and cinnamon. (How to do it right, see below.)
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WORLD HISTORY AND SPICES
Spices have been a luxury item for centuries. With the help of spices, cooks gratified the taste of kings and minions of fate. Many geographical discoveries have been made in search of spices. Spices were among the main targets of the great travels of Magellan, Vasco de Gama and Columbus. Wars have been fought over spices and thousands have died. And above all, professional spice hunters - the Dutch, French, Portuguese, British and Spaniards. Contrary to the bloody history of spices, spices (along with salt) are one of the few foods that are approved by traditions and religions. Moreover, religious holidays in different countries suggest a varied use of spices for ritual ceremonies. It is no coincidence that folk wisdom says: life without spices - no health, no joy.
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A NON-RANDOM SELECTION OF SPICES
Note that for this book we took a non-random set of spices. So one day it happened that by the will of fate or chance, these wonderful spices ended up in the backpack of one of the authors of the book during a multi-day trip. On the third day, while crossing the river, alas, the first aid kit sank. Over the next three weeks, eight travelers were treated ONLY with spices (which avoided the fate of the first-aid kit, since they were in the second kayak). A variety of ailments happened, from insect bites, snakes, colds, sciatica, burns, cuts, injuries and poisoning - to gastrointestinal disorders.
Returning home, most of the expedition members stopped using pills and still treat themselves and their loved ones with spices. (Not to mention the fact that, according to travelers, they had never eaten so deliciously on any trip before.)
We know the taste of these spices well and have researched their healing properties. In practice and according to all sources available to us. Continuing the line of the medieval physician Quintus Serenus Samonicus, we would like to place funds "not only in the hands of the physician, but also of anyone who would like to be treated without drugs."
The range of culinary products is a list of dishes, drinks, culinary and confectionery products sold at a catering enterprise and designed to meet consumer needs. When forming the range of culinary products, take into account:
* type of enterprise, class (for restaurants, bars), specialization;
* contingent eating;
* technical equipment of the enterprise;
* personnel qualification;
* rational use of raw materials;
* seasonality of raw materials;
* a variety of types of heat treatment;
* the complexity of dishes, etc.
The assortment of dishes also corresponds to different types of enterprises. So, restaurants are characterized by a wide range of all groups of dishes (appetizers, soups, second, sweet dishes, confectionery), mostly complex preparation, including custom-made and branded ones. In snack bars, as a rule, an assortment of dishes of simple preparation, from a certain type of raw material. In addition, the range of culinary products may be different, depending on the specialization of the enterprise. For example, in restaurants of national cuisine (Russian, Caucasian, etc.) national dishes should prevail; in restaurants with fish cuisine - culinary products from fish. Special requirements are imposed on the formation of a range of culinary products at medical and baby food enterprises.
The assortment is considered rational if it best meets the demand of consumers. The renewal of the assortment depends on its breadth and the contingent of those who eat. So, in restaurants with a large assortment of dishes and a non-permanent contingent of eaters, there is no need to frequently change the assortment, and in school canteens that feed children according to a complete diet, it is not recommended to repeat the same dishes more than once every two weeks. Highly specialized enterprises (for example, pancake, barbecue, etc.) practically do not change their assortment.
At catering establishments, the range of culinary products is presented in the form of a menu.
At procurement enterprises, the assortment of culinary products is a list of semi-finished products of varying degrees of readiness and represents a production program.
Chapter 4. Processes that form the quality of catering products
Culinary processing, especially thermal processing, causes deep physical and chemical changes in products. These changes can lead to nutrient losses, significantly affect the digestibility and nutritional value of products, change their color, and lead to the formation of new flavoring and aromatic substances. Without knowledge of the essence of the ongoing processes, it is impossible to consciously approach the choice of technological processing modes, ensure the high quality of ready meals, and reduce the loss of nutrients. Only general issues related to the change in nutrients during cooking are outlined below, they are discussed in more detail in the relevant sections.
Diffusion
Washing, soaking, boiling and poaching food comes into contact with water and soluble substances can be extracted from them. This process is called diffusion and obeys Fick's law. According to this law, the diffusion rate depends on the surface area of the product. The larger it is, the faster diffusion occurs. This must be taken into account when storing peeled vegetables in water or washing or boiling them. So, the surface area of tubers (medium size) of 1 kg of potatoes is approximately 160-180 cm 2, and cut into cubes - more than 4500 cm 2, i.e. 25-30 times more. Accordingly, more soluble substances will be extracted from sliced potatoes than from whole tubers during the same storage period. Therefore, pre-cut vegetables should not be stored in water or cooked in the main way.
The diffusion rate depends on the concentration of solutes in the product and the environment. The concentration of soluble substances in the product can be very significant. So, the concentration of sugars in beets is 8-10%, carrots - 6.5, rutabaga - 6%. When vegetables are immersed in water, the extraction of soluble substances proceeds at a high speed at first due to the difference in concentrations, and then gradually slows down and stops when the concentrations equalize. Concentration equilibrium occurs the faster, the smaller the volume of liquid. This explains the fact that the loss of soluble substances is less when steaming and cooking products with steam than when cooking in the main way. Therefore, to reduce the loss of nutrients during cooking, the liquid is taken in such a way as to only cover the product. Conversely, if you need to extract as many soluble substances as possible (boiling beef kidneys, boiling some mushrooms before frying, etc.), then there should be more water for cooking.
Diffusion of soluble substances is complicated by the peculiarities of the structure of food products. Soluble substances, before passing into the cooking medium from the surface of the product, must diffuse from the deep layers. The internal diffusion coefficient is usually much smaller than the external one. Consequently, the rate of transition of soluble substances into the cooking medium is determined not only by the difference in concentrations in the product and in the environment, but also by the rate of internal diffusion.
Thus, it is possible to reduce the transfer of nutrients from the product to the cooking medium, not only by reducing the volume of liquid taken for cooking, but also by slowing down the internal diffusion of soluble substances in the product itself. To do this, it is necessary to create a significant temperature gradient (difference) in the product, for which it is immediately immersed in hot water. In this case, as a result of thermal mass transfer, moisture and substances dissolved in it move from the surface layers deep into the product (thermal diffusion). Thermal diffusion, directed opposite to the flow of concentration diffusion, reduces the transfer of nutrients into the cooking medium. If it is necessary to extract as many soluble substances as possible, the product is placed in cold water during cooking.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion through semi-permeable partitions. The reason for the occurrence of concentration diffusion and osmosis is the same - concentration equalization. However, alignment methods are very different from each other. Diffusion is carried out by the movement of a solute, and osmosis is carried out by the movement of solvent molecules and occurs in the presence of a semi-permeable partition. This partition in plant and animal cells is the membrane. In culinary practice, the phenomenon of osmosis is observed when soaking wilted root crops, potato tubers, horseradish roots in order to facilitate cleaning and reduce the amount of waste. When vegetables are soaked, water enters the cell until concentration equilibrium is reached, the volume of the solution in the cell increases, and excess pressure occurs, called osmotic or turgor. Turgot gives vegetables and other products strength and elasticity.
If vegetables or fruits are placed in a solution with a high concentration of sugar or salt, then a phenomenon that reverses osmosis is observed - plasmolysis. It consists in the dehydration of cells and occurs when preserving fruits and vegetables, when sauerkraut, pickling cucumbers, etc. During plasmolysis, the osmotic pressure of the external solution is greater than the pressure inside the cell. As a result, cell sap is released. Its loss leads to a decrease in the volume of the cell, disruption of the normal course of physical and chemical processes in it. By choosing the concentration of the solution (for example, sugar when boiling fruits in syrup), the temperature regime of cooking and its duration, you can avoid wrinkling the fruits, reducing their volume, and worsening their appearance.
Swelling
Some dried jellies (xerogels) are able to swell - absorb liquid, while their volume increases significantly. Swelling must be distinguished from liquid absorption by powdery or porous bodies without volume expansion, although the two processes often occur simultaneously. Swelling is either the purpose of processing (soaking dried mushrooms, vegetables, cereals, legumes, gelatin), or accompanies other processing methods (cooking cereals, pasta and other products).
Swelling can be limited (the swollen substance remains in a gel state) and unlimited (the substance goes into solution after swelling). As the temperature rises, the limited state often changes into an unlimited state. So, gelatin at a temperature of 20-22 ° C swells to a limited extent, and at a higher temperature it swells indefinitely (it dissolves almost completely).
Soaking of cereals, legumes, dried mushrooms and vegetables is caused not only by the swelling of protein and carbohydrate xerogels, but also by osmosis and capillary absorption. Soaking accelerates the subsequent heat treatment of products, contributes to their uniform boiling.
Adhesion
Adhesion (from lat. adhaesio) - adhesion of the surface of two dissimilar bodies. In culinary practice, the phenomenon of adhesion is quite widespread and often plays a negative role. So, when frying meat and fish semi-finished products, their sticking to the frying surface is highly undesirable. To reduce adhesion, semi-finished products are breaded in flour or breadcrumbs and fat is used when frying.
Adhesion also plays a negative role during transportation minced meat through pipes in production lines in the production of cutlets. Pipelines are greasy, a layer of fat grows on their walls. Adhesion complicates the molding of products.
Reducing adhesion is very important when baking dough products, as well as in the manufacture of the dough itself (losses in the bowl, on the blades of dough mixers, on cutting tables, etc.). One of the ways to reduce the degree of adhesion is the use of flour "for dusting" when molding products. In this case, it is no longer dough that contacts the surface of the baking sheets, but flour, the adhesion of which to the surface of the inventory is much less. At the same time, part of the flour sticks to the dough and gets into the finished products, and part is lost.
To prevent sticking of culinary products during their heat treatment, equipment and inventory with a special coating, layers of polymeric materials, the so-called anti-adhesives, have been widely used in recent years. The use of anti-adhesives improves the culture of production and labor productivity. A prerequisite for the use of polymeric materials is their harmlessness, inertness in relation to the food product.
and heat stability. Moreover, heat resistance should be maintained for a long time.
Thermal mass transfer
As already noted, surface heating creates a temperature gradient in products and causes moisture to move. Food products are capillary-porous bodies. In capillaries, surface tension forces act on moisture. If both ends of the capillary are at the same temperature, then the moisture in it is in equilibrium. If one end of the capillary is heated, then its surface tension will decrease, but since it will be the same at the other end of the capillary, the liquid, together with the substances dissolved in it, will move from the heated end to the cold one. Due to this, there is a flow of moisture from the heated surface of the product to its cold center (thermal diffusion). At the same time, part of the moisture from the surface of the product evaporates under the influence of high temperature. The surface layer is rapidly dehydrated 1 the temperature rises in it, under the influence of which individual nutrients undergo profound changes (melanoidin formation, starch dextrinization, caramelization of sugars, etc.), resulting in the formation of golden brown. The resulting crust reduces the loss of moisture, and hence the mass of the product due to evaporation. The hotter the surface during frying, the higher the temperature gradient, the faster the crust will form. As a dehydrated surface layer forms, a difference in moisture content (moisture gradient) occurs. In the surface layers, the moisture content is less, in the depth - more, as a result of which the moisture flow is directed to the surface. In a stationary thermal regime, an equilibrium of these two flows is established: directed towards the center (caused by thermal mass transfer) and directed towards the surface (caused by a moisture content gradient).
Protein changes
Proteins are among the main chemical components of food. They also have another name - proteins, which emphasizes the paramount biological significance of this group of substances (from gr. protos - the first, most important).
The importance of proteins in recipes. Proteins are the building blocks of cells; serve as a material for the formation of enzymes, hormones, etc.; affect the digestibility of fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, etc. Millions of cells die every second in our body, and an adult needs 80-100 g of protein per day to restore them, and it is impossible to replace it with other substances. Therefore, technologists involved in organizing the nutrition of a permanent contingent of consumers according to daily rations (boarding schools, sanatoriums, hospitals, etc.) or a complete menu of individual meals should ensure that the protein content in the dishes meets the physiological needs of a person.
Using the tables of the chemical composition of ready-made meals, it is possible to develop a diet menu in such a way as to satisfy the need of those who eat for proteins, both in quantity and quality, that is, to provide biological value.
The biological value of proteins is determined by the content of essential amino acids (NAC), their ratio and digestibility. Proteins containing all NACs (there are eight of them: tryptophan, leucine, isoleucine, valine, threonine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine) and in the ratios in which they are included in the proteins of our body are called complete. These include the proteins of meat, fish, eggs, milk. In vegetable proteins, as a rule, there is not enough lysine, methionine, tryptophan and some other NACs. So, in buckwheat there is a lack of leucine, in rice and millet - lysine. The essential amino acid, which is the least in a given protein, is called the limiting amino acid. The remaining amino acids are absorbed in adequate quantities with it. One product can complement another in terms of amino acid content. However, such mutual enrichment occurs only if these products enter the body with a time gap of no more than 2-3 hours. Therefore, the balance in the amino acid composition of not only daily rations, but also individual meals and even dishes is of great importance. . This must be taken into account when creating recipes for dishes and culinary products that are balanced in terms of NAA content.
Most successful combinations protein foods are:
* flour + cottage cheese (cheesecakes, dumplings, pies with cottage cheese);
* potatoes + meat, fish or egg ( potato casserole with meat, meat stew, fish cakes with potatoes, etc.);
* buckwheat, oatmeal + milk, cottage cheese (croupeniki, cereals with milk, etc.);
* legumes with egg, fish or meat.
The most effective mutual enrichment of proteins is achieved at a certain ratio, for example:
* 5 parts of meat + 10 parts of potatoes;
* 5 parts of milk + 10 parts of vegetables;
* 5 parts of fish + 10 parts of vegetables;
* 2 parts of eggs + 10 parts of vegetables (potatoes), etc. The digestibility of proteins depends on their physico-chemical
properties, methods and degree of heat treatment of products. For example, the proteins of many plant foods are poorly digested, as they are enclosed in shells of fiber and other substances that prevent the action of digestive enzymes (legumes, whole grains, nuts, etc.). In addition, a number of plant products contain substances that inhibit the action of digestive enzymes (fasiolin beans).
In terms of digestion speed, the proteins of eggs, dairy products and fish are in the first place, then meat (beef, pork, lamb) and, finally, bread and cereals. More than 90% of amino acids are absorbed from the proteins of animal products in the intestine, from vegetable products - 60-80%.
Softening products during heat treatment and wiping them improves the digestibility of proteins, especially of plant origin. However, with excessive heating, the content of NAC may decrease. So, with prolonged heat treatment in a number of products, the amount of lysine available for assimilation decreases. This explains the lower digestibility of porridge proteins cooked in milk compared to the proteins of porridges cooked in water but served with milk.
The quality of the protein is assessed by a number of indicators (PEF - protein efficiency ratio, NBU - net protein utilization, etc.), which are considered by nutritional physiology.
Chemical nature and structure of proteins. Proteins are natural polymers, consisting of hundreds and thousands of amino acid residues connected by a peptide bond. The individual properties of proteins depend on the set of amino acids and their order in polypeptide chains.
According to the shape of the molecule, all proteins can be divided into globular and fibrillar. The molecule of globular proteins is close to a ball in shape, while fibrillar proteins have the shape of a fiber.
By solubility, all proteins are divided into the following groups:
* soluble in water albumins;
* soluble in saline solutions- globulins;
* soluble in alcohol - prolamins;
* soluble in alkalis- glutelins.
According to the degree of complexity, proteins are divided into proteins(simple proteins), consisting only of amino acid residues, and proteins(complex proteins), consisting of protein and non-protein parts.
There are four types of protein organization:
* primary - sequential connection of amino acid residues in the polypeptide chain;
* secondary - twisting of polypeptide chains in a spiral;
* tertiary - folding of the polypeptide chain into a globule;
* Quaternary - the combination of several particles with a tertiary structure into one larger particle.
Proteins have free carboxyl or acidic and amino groups, as a result of which they are amphoteric, i.e., depending on the reaction of the medium, they behave like acids or like alkalis. In an acidic environment, proteins exhibit alkaline properties, and their particles acquire positive charges; in an alkaline environment, they behave like acids, and their particles become negatively charged.
At a certain pH of the medium (isoelectric point), the number of positive and negative charges in a protein molecule is the same. Proteins at this point are electrically neutral, and their viscosity and solubility are the lowest. For most proteins, the isoelectric point lies in a slightly acidic environment.
The most important technological properties of proteins are: hydration (swelling in water), denaturation, the ability to form foams, degradation, etc.
Hydration and dehydration of proteins. Hydration is the ability of proteins to firmly bind a significant amount of moisture.
The hydrophilicity of individual proteins depends on their structure. Hydrophilic groups (amine, carboxyl, etc.) located on the surface of the protein globule attract water molecules, strictly orienting them on the surface. At the isoelectric point (when the charge of the protein molecule is close to zero), the ability of the protein to adsorb water is the lowest. A shift in pH to one side or another from the isoelectric point leads to the dissociation of basic or acidic groups of the protein, an increase in the charge of protein molecules and an improvement in protein hydration. The hydration (water) shell surrounding protein globules gives stability to protein solutions, prevents individual particles from sticking together and precipitating.
In solutions with a low protein concentration (for example, milk), the proteins are completely hydrated and cannot bind water. In concentrated protein solutions, additional hydration occurs when water is added. The ability of proteins to additional hydration is of great importance in food technology. It determines the juiciness of finished products, the ability of semi-finished products from meat, poultry, fish to retain moisture, the rheological properties of the dough, etc.
Examples of hydration in culinary practice are: making omelettes, cutlet mass from animal products, various types of dough, swelling of the proteins of cereals, legumes, pasta, etc.
Dehydration is the loss of bound water by proteins during drying, freezing and thawing of meat and fish, during heat treatment of semi-finished products, etc. Important indicators such as the moisture content of finished products and their yield depend on the degree of dehydration.
Protein denaturation. This difficult process, at which, under the influence of external factors (temperature, mechanical action, the action of acids, alkalis, ultrasound, etc.), a change occurs in the secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures of the protein macromolecule, i.e., the native (natural) spatial structure. The primary structure and, consequently, the chemical composition of the protein do not change.
During cooking, denaturation of proteins is most often caused by heating. This process in globular and fibrillar proteins occurs differently. In globular proteins, when heated, the thermal movement of polypeptide chains inside the globule increases; the hydrogen bonds that held them in position are broken and the polypeptide chain unfolds and then folds in a new way. In this case, the polar (charged) hydrophilic groups located on the surface of the globule and providing its charge and stability move inside the globule, and reactive hydrophobic groups (disulfide, sulfhydryl, etc.) that are not able to retain water come to its surface.
Denaturation is accompanied by changes in the most important properties of the protein:
* loss of individual properties (for example, a change in the color of meat when it is heated due to the denaturation of myoglobin);
* loss of biological activity (for example, potatoes, mushrooms, apples and a number of other plant products contain enzymes that cause them to darken; during denaturation, enzyme proteins lose their activity);
* increased attack by digestive enzymes (as a rule, cooked foods containing proteins are digested more completely and easier);
* loss of ability to hydration (dissolution, swelling);
* loss of stability of protein globules, which is accompanied by their aggregation (folding, or coagulation, of the protein).
Aggregation is the interaction of denatured protein molecules, which is accompanied by the formation of larger particles. Outwardly, this is expressed differently depending on the concentration and colloidal state of proteins in solution. So, in low-concentration solutions (up to 1%), the coagulated protein forms flakes (foam on the surface of the broths). In more concentrated protein solutions (for example, egg whites), denaturation forms a continuous gel that retains all the water contained in the colloidal system. Proteins, which are more or less watered gels (muscle proteins of meat, poultry, fish; proteins of cereals, legumes, flour after hydration, etc.), are compacted during denaturation, while their dehydration occurs with the separation of liquid into the environment. The protein gel subjected to heating, as a rule, has a smaller volume, mass, greater mechanical strength and elasticity compared to the original gel of native (natural) proteins.
The rate of aggregation of protein sols depends on the pH of the medium. Proteins are less stable near the isoelectric point. To improve the quality of dishes and culinary products, a directed change in the reaction of the environment is widely used. So, when marinating meat, poultry, fish before frying; adding citric acid or dry white wine when stewing fish, chickens; the use of tomato puree when stewing meat, etc. create an acidic environment with pH values significantly below the isoelectric point of the product proteins. Due to less dehydration of proteins, products are more juicy.
Fibrillar proteins denature differently: the bonds that held the helixes of their polypeptide chains break, and the fibril (thread) of the protein shortens in length. This is how the proteins of the connective tissue of meat and fish are denatured.
Destruction of proteins. With prolonged heat treatment, proteins undergo deeper changes associated with the destruction of their macromolecules. At the first stage of changes, functional groups can be split off from protein molecules with the formation of such volatile compounds as ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen phosphide, carbon dioxide, etc. Accumulating in the product, they participate in the formation of taste and aroma finished products. During further hydrothermal treatment, the proteins are hydrolyzed, while the primary (peptide) bond is broken with the formation of soluble nitrogenous substances of a non-protein nature (for example, the transition of collagen to glutin).
Protein destruction can be targeted cooking, contributing to the intensification of the technological process (the use of enzyme preparations for softening meat, weakening the gluten of the dough, obtaining protein hydrolysates, etc.).
Foaming. Proteins are widely used as foaming agents in the production of confectionery products (biscuit dough, protein-whipped dough), whipping cream, sour cream, eggs, etc.). The stability of the foam depends on the nature of the protein, its concentration, and temperature.
Other technological properties of proteins are also important. Thus, they are used as emulsifiers in the production of protein-fat emulsions (see Section I, Chapter 2), as fillers for various drinks. Drinks fortified with protein hydrolysates (such as soy) have a low calorie content and can be stored for a long time even at high temperatures without the addition of preservatives. Proteins are able to bind flavor and aroma substances. This process is determined both by the chemical nature of these substances, and by the surface properties of the protein molecule, and by environmental factors.
During long-term storage, "aging" of proteins occurs, while their ability to hydrate decreases, the terms of heat treatment lengthen, and the product is difficult to boil (for example, cooking legumes after long-term storage).
When heated with reducing sugars, proteins form melanoids (see p. 61).
Carbohydrate Changes
Food products contain monosaccharides (glucose, fructose), oligosaccharides (di- and trisucrose - maltose, lactose, etc.), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, hemicelluloses, glycogen) and pectin substances close to carbohydrates.
sugar changes. During the manufacture of various culinary products, some of the sugars contained in them are broken down. In some cases, the splitting is limited to the hydrolysis of disaccharides, in others, a deeper breakdown of sugars occurs (the processes of fermentation, caramelization, melanoidin formation).
Hydrolysis of disaccharides. Disaccharides are hydrolyzed by both acids and enzymes.
Acid hydrolysis takes place in such technological processes as cooking fruits and berries in sugar solutions of various concentrations (preparation of compotes, jelly, fruit and berry fillings), baking apples, boiling sugar with any food acid (preparation of sweets). Sucrose in aqueous solutions under the influence of acids, it attaches a water molecule and splits into equal amounts of glucose and fructose (sucrose inversion). The resulting invert sugar is well absorbed by the body, has a high hygroscopicity and the ability to delay the crystallization of sucrose. If the sweetness of sucrose is taken as 100%, then for glucose this figure will be 74%, and for fructose - 173%. Therefore, the consequence of inversion is some increase in the sweetness of the syrup or finished products.
The degree of sucrose inversion depends on the type of acid, its concentration, and the duration of heating. Organic acids according to inversion ability can be arranged in the following order: oxalic, citric, malic and acetic.
In culinary practice, as a rule, acetic and citric acids are used, the first is 50 times weaker than oxalic acid, the second - 11 times.
Sucrose and maltose undergo enzymatic hydrolysis during fermentation and during the initial period of yeast dough baking. Sucrose is broken down by the enzyme sucrase into glucose and fructose, and maltose is broken down by the enzyme maltase into two molecules of glucose. Both enzymes are found in yeast. Sucrose is added to the dough in accordance with its recipe, maltose is formed in the process of hydrolysis from starch. Accumulating monosaccharides are involved in the leavening of yeast dough.
Fermentation. Sugars undergo deep decay during the fermentation of yeast dough. Under the action of yeast enzymes, sugars are converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide, the latter loosens the dough. In addition, under the action of lactic acid bacteria, the sugars in the dough are converted into lactic acid, which delays the development of putrefactive processes and contributes to the swelling of gluten proteins.
These processes are discussed in more detail in Sec. IV.
Caramelization. The deep decomposition of sugars when they are heated above the melting point with the formation of dark-colored products is called caramelization. The melting point of fructose is 98-102°C, glucose - 145-149, sucrose - 160-185°C. The processes involved are complex and not well understood. They largely depend on the type and concentration of sugar, heating conditions, pH of the medium and other factors.
In culinary practice, most often you have to deal with caramelization of sucrose. When it is heated during the technological process in a slightly acidic or neutral medium, a partial inversion occurs with the formation of glucose and fructose, which undergo further transformations. For example, one or two water molecules can be split off from a glucose molecule (dehydration), and the resulting products (anhydrides) can combine with each other or with a sucrose molecule. Subsequent thermal exposure can lead to the release of the third water molecule with the formation of hydroxymethyl furfural, which, upon further heating, can decompose to form formic and levulinic acids or form colored compounds. Colored compounds are a mixture of substances of varying degrees of polymerization: caramelane (a light straw-colored substance that dissolves in cold water), caramelene (a bright brown substance with a ruby tint that dissolves both in cold and boiling water), carameline (a dark brown substance that dissolves only in boiling water), etc., which turns into a non-crystallizing mass (burnt). Zhzhenka is used as a food coloring.
Caramelization of sugars occurs when roasting onions and carrots for broths, when baking apples, and when preparing many confectionery and sweet dishes.
Melanoidin formation. Submelanoidin formation understand the interaction of reducing sugars (monosaccharides and reducing disaccharides, both contained in the product itself and formed during the hydrolysis of more complex carbohydrates) with amino acids, peptides and proteins, leading to the formation of dark-colored products - melanoidins (from gr. melanos - dark). This process is also called the Maillard reaction, after the scientist who first described it in 1912.
The reaction of melanoidin formation is of great importance in culinary practice. Its positive role is as follows: it causes the formation of an appetizing crust on fried, baked dishes from meat, poultry, fish, baked goods from dough; By-products of this reaction are involved in the formation of taste and aroma of finished dishes. The negative role of the reaction of melanoidin formation is that it causes darkening of frying fat, fruit purees, and some vegetables; reduces the biological value of proteins, since amino acids bind.
Such amino acids as lysine, methionine, which are most often lacking in vegetable proteins, enter into the reaction of melanoidin formation especially easily. After combining with sugars, these acids become inaccessible to digestive enzymes and are not absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. In culinary practice, milk is often heated with cereals and vegetables. As a result of the interaction of lactose and lysine, the biological value of proteins in ready meals is reduced.
starch changes. Structure of starch grain and properties of starch polysaccharides. In significant quantities, starch is found in cereals, legumes, flour, pasta, potatoes. It is found in the cells of plant products in the form of starch grains of various sizes and shapes. They are complex biological formations, which include polysaccharides (amylose and amylopectin) and small amounts of their accompanying substances (phosphoric, silicic acids, etc., mineral elements, etc.). Starch grain has a layered structure (Fig. 1.3). The layers consist of particles of starch polysaccharides arranged radially and forming the beginnings of a crystalline structure. Due to this, the starch grain has anisotropy (birefringence).
The grain-forming layers are heterogeneous: heat-resistant layers alternate with less stable ones, and denser layers alternate with less dense ones. The outer layer is denser than the inner ones and forms a grain shell. All grain is permeated with pores and due to this it is able to absorb moisture. Most types of starch contain 15-20% amylose and 80-85% amylopectin. However, the starch of waxy varieties of corn, rice and barley consists mainly of amylopectin, and the starch of some varieties of corn and peas contains 50-75% amylose.
Molecules of starch polysaccharides consist of glucose residues connected to each other in long chains. Amylose molecules contain on average about 1000 such residues. The longer the amylose chains, the worse it dissolves. Amylopectin molecules contain much more glucose residues. In addition, in amylose molecules, the chains are straight, while in amylopectin they are branched. In a starch grain, the polysaccharide molecules are curved and arranged in layers.
The widespread use of starch in culinary practice is due to a complex of technological properties characteristic of it: swelling and gelatinization, hydrolysis, dextrinization (thermal destruction).
Swelling and gelatinization of starch. Swelling is one of the most important properties of starch, which affects the consistency, shape, volume and yield of finished products.
When starch is heated with water (starch suspension) to a temperature of 50-55°C, starch grains slowly absorb water (up to 50% of their mass) and swell to a limited extent. In this case, no increase in the viscosity of the suspension is observed. This swelling is reversible: after cooling and drying, the starch practically does not change.
Rice. 1.3. Structure of starch grain:
1 - structure of amylose; 2 - structure of amylopectin; 3 - starch grains of raw potatoes; 4 - starch grains of boiled potatoes; 5 - starch grains in raw dough; 6 - starch grains after baking
Diet meals are prepared according to the rules of traditional technology. However, depending on the nature of the disease, special requirements are put forward for the choice of products and methods of preparation. When evaluating quality, diet meals use a set of indicators: good quality, organoleptic qualities (appearance, color, aroma, taste, consistency), which affect digestibility; usefulness in terms of nutritional value of its chemical composition, possible therapeutic effect (the presence of components that have a beneficial effect on the disease, providing "chemical sparing") and physical properties that determine the availability for digestion and the degree of mechanical irritation (sparing). Thus, in their production, the chemical composition of the raw materials, the quantitative proportions in the recipe, the salt content, and the type of cooking are taken into account. For the preparation of dietary dishes, in addition to the usual equipment and inventory, a meat grinder with a fine grate, a mill for grinding cereals, mashers, beaters, juicers, steamers, etc. are needed (see "Production equipment, inventory, utensils").
Cooking is carried out in accordance with the description in special collections of recipes for dietary dishes and culinary products. Directly at the catering normative documents are technological maps for all manufactured products, which contain a list of products and their quantity (gross and net weight), the yield of the finished product, garnish and sauce, the technology of their preparation, the requirements for the quality of the finished dish.
The range of dietary products is dominated by boiled dishes. Cooking is preferably steamed for minced meat and fish products and stewing for vegetables and fruits, which improves the taste of food and increases the safety of many nutrients. In diets that allow fried foods, fried in vegetable or ghee. Butter put in the finished dish.
In diseases of the gastrointestinal tract and some others, the regulation of the mechanically irritating effect of food is of great importance. In some diets (especially No. 1 and No. 4), the principle of mechanical sparing is observed, in others (No. 3, No. 5, No. 8), mechanical stimulation of the digestive organs gives a therapeutic effect. The intensity of the mechanical impact of food is determined by its consistency and quantity. In turn, the consistency depends on the physical properties of the products and methods of cooking (the degree of grinding, the nature of heating), which change the structural and mechanical properties. Therefore, for the purpose of mechanical sparing, vegetables, fruits, cereals with a low content of cell membranes, meat of young animals, birds, rabbits, parts of beef carcasses with relatively few connective tissue proteins are used. With the help of special equipment and equipment, products are subjected to varying degrees of grinding. To prepare mashed soups and other pureed dishes, boiled products are rubbed several times through a fine hair sieve. The same dispersion (particle size - 800-1000 microns) is provided by a fine grinding machine raw vegetables(MISO). When using a machine for fine grinding of boiled products (MIVP), a degree of grinding of 250-500 microns is achieved. To create a lush texture and facilitate digestion, the crushed masses are intensively mixed, pre-whipped egg whites (puddings, soufflés) are introduced.
In strict mechanically sparing diets, slimy decoctions are used, which are prepared by long (3-4 hours) boiling of cereals (ratio 1: 10) and filtering through a fine sieve. It is advisable to use instead of cereals the appropriate flour produced by the industry for baby and diet food. Average particle sizes rice flour are 90-108 microns, buckwheat - 65-71 microns. oatmeal - 88-100 microns. The duration of their cooking is 5-7 minutes. You can use homogenized canned vegetables, which have a particle size of 150-200 microns.
The principle of chemical sparing used in the diet is also realized through the selection of products and special cooking techniques. In order to chemically sparing the gastrointestinal tract, sour fruits, vegetables rich in essential oils, spicy and salty gastronomic products, spices, meat and fish products rich in extractives are excluded from the diet. Soups and sauces are cooked on cereal and weak vegetable broths. Wheat flour for sauces is dried, it is not recommended to use fat sauteing. Instead of sauteing, aromatic vegetables are stewed, and tomato puree is boiled. Onions are first blanched to remove irritants. The main method is boiling. To reduce extractive substances, meat and fish products are boiled in boiling water for a long time: meat weighing about 1.5 kg - 2-3 hours; fish - 30-40 min. Identical losses of extractives (about 65%) are achieved by blanching cut pieces weighing about 100 g and 2-3.5 cm thick in boiling water. Portions chilled meat is blanched for 10 minutes, defrosted - 5 minutes, fish - 3-5 minutes. Then the semi-finished products are brought to readiness for 15 minutes by steaming, or stewed in milk sauce, or used for the preparation of chopped products: steam cutlets, meatballs, soufflés. The loss of extractives during the cooking of chopped products with fillers (bread, rice) is much lower. With gout, the amount of foods rich in nucleic acids (yeast, meat of young animals, many offal and fish products, meat and fish broths) is limited. Reducing the content of purine bases (by 50-60%) is carried out by the same methods that are used to reduce the content of nitrogenous extractives. V bone broth prepared from beef bones, there are practically no purines, and it is allowed on diet number 6.
In chronic renal failure, they also use techniques to reduce the content of nitrogenous extractives in the diet (for example, meat and fish are pre-boiled and then baked). To mask the taste with a low-salt or salt-free diet, sour dishes, sour and sweet gravies and sauces are often included in the menu, seasoned with sour cream, added to main dishes immediately before dispensing 1.5-2.5 g of the drug sanasol (dietary salt, reminiscent of sodium in taste). chloride). If it is necessary to limit protein, dishes made from low-protein foods are used: sago, modified starches, specially processed pasta.
To reduce consumption of starch and sugar diabetes exclude carbohydrate-rich meals and culinary products. In chopped meat and fish dishes, instead of wheat bread, cottage cheese is used, and in sweet products, sugar is replaced with xylitol (at a ratio of 1: 1) or sorbitol (1: 1.35-1.5) no more than 30-40 g per day. Limit lishu rich in animal fats.
The same principles underlie the preparation of culinary products with reduced energy value for obese patients.
In the diet, dishes are used that are enriched with components that have certain medicinal properties in relation to certain diseases. To enrich the diet with protein, dishes and culinary products are prepared with protein products of milk (skimmed milk powder, caseinates, caseites, unleavened cottage cheese), slaughterhouse blood (hematogen, etc.), soy (soy flour, isolate soy protein), yeast. For enrichment with iodine (diet No. 8, No. 10c), seafood is used ( sea kale, shrimp, squid, etc.). Phosphatides are added to flour baked goods (they have lipotropic properties). Decoctions of medicinal food herbs, fruits and berries are introduced into drinks and sweet dishes. To increase the content of ascorbic acid in food, C-vitaminization of ready meals is carried out in compliance with the technology and hygiene of cooking.
In the following subsections, the technology for preparing certain types of dietary dishes and culinary products is described, and the recipe for some of them is given.
Since the incoming raw materials can be of different standards and have different waste during primary processing, depending on the time of year, storage method, etc., the norms for laying in the recipes are given by net weight. The consumption of products (gross weight) is determined by the tables of consumption of raw materials, output of semi-finished products and finished products.
Most of the recipes given according to the current collection of recipes "Dietary Nutrition" (M., 1962). In addition, the developments recent years, to which the corresponding references are given in the tables.
To compile layout cards, it is necessary to recalculate the nutritional value of dishes per digestible part, using the following digestibility coefficients (in%): proteins - 84.5; fats - 94; carbohydrates - 95.6 (the sum of digestible and indigestible).
“Let food be your medicine, otherwise medicine will become your food,” said Hippocrates. This idea is also reflected in many other ancient teachings about health, healing and longevity. One of them is Ayurveda - Vedic medicine, a science with more than five thousand years of history, successfully practiced to this day. Ayurveda includes the teaching of cooking with spices.
Unfortunately, at present, we have almost lost the culture of using spices, knowledge of their properties and capabilities. Therefore, our food is not very tasty, even coarse - only salty, only spicy, only sweet. As for the medicinal properties of spices, today even less is known about them than about culinary ones. Spices have a wonderful ability to be a bridge to health.
When using the term “spices”, one must keep in mind that spices and seasonings in a narrow culinary sense are opposite terms. The difference between spices and seasonings is, in general, that spices are not used separately and in fact a full meal are not (although some, such as fresh spices or root vegetables can be used alone), while spices can be used separately to a certain extent, although not all. Spices only emphasize the overall taste of the dish, bring in new nuances, while seasonings themselves are a component of the dish as a whole, creating its taste. Some spices (mainly root crops) can also be used as seasonings, for example, celery root - the dried root is used as a spice in the preparation of soup, it is also raw or thermally processed as an ingredient in a salad or a base for mashed soup. It should also be noted that the word spices is also not a synonym for the word spices: spices in culinary practice and everyday life are called a certain set of the most common and used spices (pepper, Bay leaf etc.) and seasonings (salt, sugar, mustard, etc.).
Indian cooking is unthinkable without the use of spices, spices, herbs and seasonings. Spices are the roots, bark and seeds of some plants, which are used either whole, or in crushed form, or in powder form. Herbs are fresh leaves or flowers. And as seasonings, flavoring additives such as salt, citrus juice, nuts and rose water are used.
In the framework of this article, we will talk specifically about the spices most often used in Vedic cooking, about their beneficial culinary and healing properties. So let's go alphabetically.
Anise
Anise has long been known not only as a folk remedy. It is used as a spice in many culinary specialties. Anise is similar to fennel, but spicier and hotter. Anise fruits are used, containing a large number of vitamin C, minerals, fats and proteins. As a rule, anise is added to a variety of pies, gingerbread, cookies, muffins, pancakes, soups, puddings, as well as when pickling cabbage and cucumbers.Anise fruits have an expectorant, antispasmodic, antimicrobial effect, improve digestion, stimulate the liver and pancreas; have a mild laxative effect, have a diaphoretic and antipyretic effect, and also increase the secretion of milk in lactating women.
Basil
Basil is the favorite plant of the Indian god Vishnu. Even in ancient times, it was believed that this magical plant has healing properties. And eating the leaves, saves from the bites of poisonous snakes and scorpions.Basil is native to Africa, the Pacific Islands and tropical Asia. In Europe, it began to be used in the 16th century. Often used with marjoram, parsley, rosemary, savory, mint and tarragon. Basil is used as a salt substitute in various diets that prohibit regular salt. Dishes with tomatoes, cucumbers, beans, peas and zucchini are not cooked without basil. Particularly wonderful and tasty are tomatoes flavored with this fragrant seasoning and poured over. olive oil. Cultivating is quite simple, you can even grow it in a city apartment on a windowsill.
Vanilla
The fruit of the Vanilla planifolia tree is a liana with a terribly long-term, long-lasting herbaceous stem breaking on trees, forming innumerable aerial roots. Grows in tropical rainforests of Mexico, Panama, Antilles. Vanilla tastes bitter, which is why before use it is scrupulously ground into powder in a porcelain mortar together with powdered sugar. Then this vanilla sugar can already be used. For its preparation, 1 stick of vanilla is charged for 0.5 kilograms of sugar. Vanilla is injected into the dough immediately before heat treatment, into puddings, soufflé, compotes, jam - immediately after their preparation. Biscuits and cakes are soaked in vanilla syrup after cooking. The main products from natural vanilla: Vanilla powder - powder from dried and ground vanilla pods, it keeps good health when heated strongly and is therefore used in bakery and confectionery production. Vanilla does not idolize other spices and spices - perhaps only saffron and cinnamon are in harmony with it. Carnation
These dried flower buds of the tropical clove tree (Myrtus caryophyllus), shaped like nails, have always formed the basis of the spice trade. Clove oil has antiseptic properties and a strong aroma. It is believed that the custom of "chewing a clove" when addressing the emperor originated in China. In England, during the reign of Elizabeth I, courtiers also had to chew cloves in the presence of the queen. A good clove should be oily to the touch and have a reddish-brown color. As cloves age, they dry out, shrivel, and largely lose their flavor. As a spice, cloves are used mostly whole, less often ground, for obvious reasons - ground cloves quickly lose flavor. When using this spice, it should be taken into account that heat treatment leads to a partial loss of aromatic properties and an increase in bitter taste. Roasted in a dry frying pan and crushed, cloves are part of garam masala.
Clove improves digestion, purifies the blood, strengthens the heart, and also acts as a local pain reliever for toothache. clove oil is known as an excellent antiseptic, a remedy for relieving breath and toothache, as well as a remedy for respiratory diseases.
Ginger
This light brown knotted root of Zingiber officinalis is used in all kinds of Indian dishes. Pungent in taste, ginger root belongs to the category of "hot spices" that kindle the "fire" of digestion and improve blood circulation. Such a combination of taste and medicinal qualities, like ginger, cannot be found in any other spice, and even recognized medicinal plants sometimes give way to ginger. As a medicinal product, ginger has a long list of properties. Especially useful in cold climates. Try to buy fresh, smooth, not shriveled, dense to the touch and low fiber ginger. Before chopping, grating, cutting, or chopping ginger to make a paste, it must be peeled and peeled. sharp knife. To grate ginger, use a fine metal grater. Ground dry ginger cannot replace fresh, because it has a completely different aroma and taste. Dried ginger (sont) is spicier than fresh ginger, so it is recommended to soak it before use. (One teaspoon of dried ginger equals one tablespoon of grated fresh ginger.)
Ginger belongs to the same family as bananas and is considered the most beneficial of all spices. Japanese scientists came to the conclusion that the use of this spice reduces blood cholesterol, so if you eat fatty foods, then ginger must be in your diet. And Danish doctors have found that ginger relieves pain in rheumatism, helps with the deposition of salts and does not give any side effects. In addition, ginger stimulates the work of the entire digestive system helps to get rid of toxins.
Cayenne pepper
Powder made from dried red hot pepper, commonly referred to as "red ground pepper". This spice makes food spicy. Apply to taste. Cayenne pepper perfectly cleanses the body of toxic substances that delay the flow of oxygen and make you feel tired and irritated. It also supplies the body with sulfur and stimulates its vital activity in such a way that it creates a feeling of additional life force and energy. In addition, cayenne pepper is used to improve appetite and digestion, and increases resistance to colds. It also has a healing effect on high blood pressure, diabetes, hangover syndrome, arthritis, asthma, kidney infections, fistulas and respiratory diseases.
Cardamom
Belongs to the ginger family (Elettaria cardamomum). Its pale green pods are mainly used to flavor sweet dishes. Cardamom seeds are chewed to refresh the mouth and stimulate digestion. White cardamom pods, which are nothing more than sun-dried greens, are easier to come by, but less flavorful. If you used whole pods when cooking, remove them from the dish before serving, and if you caught them while eating, then put them on the edge of the plate - they should not be eaten whole. If the recipe only calls for black cardamom seeds, which have a sharp taste, then remove them from the pods and crush them in a mortar with a pestle or on a board with a rolling pin. Ground cardamom seeds are also used to make garam masala. Fresh cardamom seeds are smooth, uniform black in color, while old ones become wrinkled and take on a grayish brown hue.Coriander (cilantro)
The fresh leaves of Coriandrum sativum are as widely used in India as parsley is in the West. They are used not only to decorate dishes, but also to give them flavor. Coriander, eaten, has a strengthening effect on the cardiovascular system. And the whole digestive tract will be grateful for the use of coriander seeds. As for the leaves (cilantro), it has a bright antiseptic and analgesic effect on stomach ulcers and gastritis. Its choleretic effect is also known. Both leaves and seeds of coriander improve intestinal motility and strengthen blood vessels.
Fresh coriander is worth looking for in the market, for it has a very peculiar taste. If you can't get coriander, you can replace it with parsley, but the smell will be different.
Cinnamon
True cinnamon comes from the inner bark of the evergreen tree Cinnamomum zeylanicum. The most valuable in terms of taste, but also the most expensive is Ceylon cinnamon. This tree is native to Sri Lanka and Western India. She has a characteristic delicate aroma and sweetish, slightly pungent aftertaste. It goes well with many tart and spicy spices. Widely used in home cooking, often added to baked goods. Buy thin, sun-dried cinnamon sticks. If you are using whole cinnamon sticks in chutney or rice dishes they must be taken out before serving. Instead of buying ground cinnamon sticks, buy whole sticks, toast them in a dry frying pan, and grind as needed.
Cumin
This spice is also called zira, or spicy cumin. Egypt, Syria and Turkey are considered to be the birthplace of cumin. In Europe, it has been known since the ninth century BC. Whole cumin seeds (as well as ground ones) are best used fresh. If stored for a long time, cumin may develop a bitter taste.
Thanks to the peculiar spicy taste and aroma, cumin has a strong place in cooking and can be used in many dishes. It is added to fermented milk products to give a special smell and taste. Due to its antimicrobial properties, cumin is used for food preservation. Cumin is added to hot dishes at the very beginning of cooking (for example, it is fried in oil and only then the rest of the products are added).
Ground cumin can be seasoned with salads, dairy products, sandwiches, etc. It is advisable to add cumin to peas, beans, potatoes, cabbage. The spice calms the fermentation process in the digestive tract, relieves the feeling of heaviness when overeating. Cumin seeds are put into roasted and vegetable stew, in sauces and soups, as well as in pastries.
In addition to excellent taste, cumin also has a number of medicinal properties. This spice is used in medical purposes for digestive disorders, diarrhea, abdominal pain due to accumulation of gases, hemorrhoids, chronic fever and kidney disease. Even in ancient times, it was used by women to increase the flow of breast milk during lactation.
Turmeric
Perennial plant Curcuma longa from the ginger family with large oval leaves, reminiscent of ginger. Plant height sometimes reaches 90 cm. It is the rhizome that is of value as a spice.Turmeric owes its appearance in Europe to the great traveler Marco Polo. It was he who, in South China, discovered the striking similarity between saffron and turmeric, the latter being significantly inferior in price.
The root is of all shades, from dark orange to reddish brown, but when dried and ground, it is always bright yellow. Applied in not large quantities for coloring rice dishes and for adding a fresh, tangy flavor to vegetables, soups and snacks. Crushed turmeric retains the ability to color for a long time, but quickly loses its flavor. Turmeric must be handled with care as it leaves permanent stains on clothing and ignites easily.
According to Ayurveda, turmeric cleanses the blood, improves digestion, heals ulcers, helps with diabetes, and is used as a diuretic. When applied externally, turmeric cures many skin diseases and cleanses it. Recent studies have shown that turmeric is a powerful antidepressant that prevents blood clots and keeps cholesterol within acceptable limits.
Bay leaf
The leaves of an evergreen subtropical plant of the Laurel family, widely used as a spice.In cooking, as a spice, fresh, but more often dried laurel leaves, fruits and powder are used. main feature bay leaf lies in the fact that even with prolonged and improper storage, it retains its properties. Recognized as a universal "soup" spice. Bay leaf is very good for potato dishes, it will be useful in marinades and when canning vegetables. Indispensable in the preparation of sauces. It should be noted that in large quantities, bay leaves can unpleasantly change the aroma of dishes, giving it a pungent smell. Long-term heat treatment of the leaves can give the dish a bitter aftertaste, so they should be added shortly before the end of the heat treatment.
The medically beneficial properties of bay leaves have been known for a long time, the main ones being astringent and diuretic, which improve appetite and digestion. It is characterized by a high content of phytoncides, a high concentration of trace elements necessary for the body, tannins, the ability to remove toxins from the body and increase immunity.
Mint leaves
The most common varieties are spearmint (Mentha spicata) and peppermint (Mentha piperita). Mint leaves are used to color food and refresh drinks, as well as to make mint chutney. It also goes well with vegetables, balls and salads. This plant is easy to grow at home, in almost any soil, in the sun or in the shade. Dry mint loses color but retains flavor. Mint has tonic properties, improves digestion, stimulates the activity of the liver and intestines, and helps with nausea and vomiting. As a poultice, fresh leaves are applied to ulcers and wounds.
Nutmeg
This is the kernel of the fruit of the tropical tree Myristica fragrans. An evergreen tree 10-15 m high with dark green leaves and white flowers. Buy only whole, round, dense, oily and heavy nuts. They can be dark or white (due to the lime used to repel insects). Grated nutmeg is used in small quantities (sometimes in combination with other spices) to add flavor to puddings, milk sweets, and vegetable dishes. Pairs very well with spinach and winter squash. Often included in garam masala. Whole or ground nuts should be stored in an airtight container. Nutmeg has an extremely powerful stimulating and tonic effect. It also strengthens memory, improves impotence and cures sexual disorders, many benign tumors, mastopathy. Included in the composition of immuno-strengthening collections. In small doses - a good sedative.
Marjoram
Perennial shrub plant (Majorana hortensis Moench) of the Lamiaceae family. In ancient times, it was a symbol of happiness. Marjoram and thyme leaves were widely used in the Roman Empire to prevent milk from going sour. It is used in many dishes, especially if you want to get a strong and at the same time sweet aroma. Used as a seasoning for salads, soups (especially potato) and vegetable dishes. When used fresh, it is better to add at the end of cooking so that the taste does not boil out and the smell does not disappear. oregano
Oregano is very similar to marjoram. And this is no coincidence, since oregano is a wild marjoram. "Oregano" in Greek means "radiance of the mountains." Along with thyme, marjoram, rosemary and thyme, it is included in the bouquet of Provence spices. Dried leaves and inflorescences of oregano are used as a spice in cooking, but it is also possible to use fresh leaves plants. Oregano has a delicate, pleasant smell and a spicy, bitter taste. Improves appetite and promotes digestion. Oregano is the perfect seasoning for a tomato and cheese salad. From a medical point of view, oregano has a number of useful properties. It has a tonic, expectorant effect on the body and can be used in the treatment of diseases of the throat, cough. According to some reports, chewing fresh leaves has a soothing effect on toothache. In addition, the essential oils contained in the plant are used for asthma, rheumatism, stomach and intestinal cramps.
Paprika
Paprika is a spice consisting of ground dried pulp of sweet red pepper (Capsicum annum) of the nightshade family (Solanaceae). The resulting powder has a characteristic bright red color and a slight sweet taste with a hint of bitterness. Paprika is a warming spice, so it improves blood circulation, relieves joint pain and generally increases brain activity, in addition, it improves appetite and improves the functioning of the gastrointestinal tract. Contains vitamins C, P, B1, B2. Paprika contains capsaicin, which is responsible for the pungency, has antioxidant and analgesic properties. It also prevents the formation of blood clots by thinning it out.
Separately, it is worth mentioning the excellent combination of paprika with spices such as basil, coriander, bay leaf, nutmeg, parsley, dill.
Parsley
A plant from the umbrella family. The root in the word "parsley" is "petr", which in Greek means "stone". This suggests that the wild ancestor of garden parsley grows on the scarce siliceous soil of Greece. This is where the Latin name of the plant comes from - “petroselinum” - “growing on a stone”.It is preferable to use fresh, as it contains a lot of vitamin C, which is destroyed during heat treatment. 100 grams of young parsley contains approximately two daily norms of vitamin C - 150 milligrams. This is 4 times more than in the same 100 grams of lemon. And in terms of the content of carotene, parsley is not inferior to the recognized champion - carrots. Parsley is also rich in vitamins PP, K, B1, B2 and carotene. Straight-leaved parsley is milder in flavor and more spicy than curly parsley. It is usually used in salads.
From time immemorial, it has occupied a place of honor in public medicine: wounds were treated with its leaves, parsley juice mixed with lemon juice was used to remove freckles. Parsley has been used since time immemorial as a plant that stimulates appetite, an excellent cosmetic and medicinal weapon for many diseases. The plant was popular in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, in the areas of sunrise. Thanks to the pathetic and balanced content of potassium and calcium, it is recommended to take it in case of cardiovascular insufficiency, urinary disorders, and diabetes mellitus.
Rosemary
Evergreen shrub of the genus Rosmarinus, abundantly growing on the Mediterranean coast. It has a strong fragrant sweet smell, resembling the smell of pine, and a very spicy, with a hint of spiciness, taste. Leaves, flowers and young shoots of rosemary, fresh or dried, are usually used as a spice.Rosemary, unlike most herbs, does not lose its characteristic aroma due to prolonged heat treatment. Rosemary is usually added to sauces and soups, various cheese dishes. Rosemary is also a natural food preservative. You should not combine rosemary with bay leaf - it will easily "suffocate" the aroma of cooked dishes with its thick camphor aroma.
Eating rosemary helps to improve digestion, as it increases the secretion of gastric juice, it has a beneficial effect on the body with low blood pressure, nervous disorders, a state of general exhaustion and sexual weakness.
Caraway
Cumin is number one on the list of the most ancient spices. According to reliable data of archaeologists, people adopted cumin about 5 thousand years ago.Cumin root is used to prepare sweet dishes, the green part is suitable for salads and hot dishes, and the seeds are used for baking, various dishes and drinks.
For inflammation of the pancreas and gallbladder, use a decoction of cumin, it relieves spasms well and relaxes smooth muscles. Cumin has proven itself very well due to its antispasmodic properties in bronchitis and pneumonia. Cumin preparations can help remove phlegm from the lungs, relieve bronchospasm.
Black pepper
Black pepper is, without exaggeration, the most popular and widespread spice in the world. It is the fruit of a perennial climbing plant, the genus Piper, family Piperaceae, reaching a height of 6 meters. The historical homeland of the plant is considered to be the Malabar region (now Kerala), located on the southwestern coast of India. That is why black pepper is sometimes referred to as the "Malabar berry". Black pepper is a universal seasoning, added in the form of peas to dishes shortly before cooking or in the form ground pepper for filling various dishes, fillings. It is most often used as a spice for soups, sauces, gravies, vegetable salads, marinades, in the preparation of sauerkraut, canned vegetables, tomatoes.
From a medical point of view, black pepper is considered one of the most effective digestive stimulants. It stimulates the metabolic process by activating the burning of calories, reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases: it thins the blood, destroys clots, and improves blood circulation. The content of vitamin C is 3 times higher than that of an orange. In addition, it is worth noting the high content of iron, calcium, phosphorus, carotene and B vitamins.
Fennel
Fennel is the seed of the plant Foeniculum vulgare. Also known as "sweet cumin". Its long, pale green seeds are similar to cumin and cumin seeds, but larger and different in color. It resembles dill in appearance, closer to anise in taste and aroma, but with a sweeter and sweeter taste. Fennel seeds are sometimes used in seasonings. Toasted fennel is chewed after meals to refresh the mouth and improve digestion. If you can't find it, replace equal amount anise seeds. Fennel improves digestion, stimulates the flow of breast milk in nursing mothers and is very useful for gastritis, stomach ulcers and other diseases of the gastrointestinal tract. It is especially good to use fennel with weak digestion for children and the elderly. Rinsing the mouth with a decoction of fennel eliminates sore throat and hoarseness. Due to the strong healing effect, this spice has long been considered a medicinal plant in our country and was sold only in pharmacies. But the taste and aromatic qualities of fennel make it indispensable in the preparation of many dishes of Vedic cuisine.
Saffron
Saffron is called the "king of spices". These are the dried stigmas of the saffron crocus, Crocus sativus, grown in Kashmir, the Caucasus, Spain, Portugal and China. There are only three saffron veins in each crocus flower, so about 300,000 flowers are required to produce one kilogram of saffron, with the veins being hand-picked. Saffron is very expensive, but even the smallest amount in food is quite noticeable. Be careful not to confuse it with a cheap saffron substitute. They are very similar in appearance and have the same color, but the saffron substitute is completely devoid of the aroma characteristic of real saffron. The best quality saffron is dark red or reddish brown and soft to the touch. As saffron ages, it turns pale, dries out, becomes brittle and loses much of its flavor. The aroma of saffron is subtle and pleasant. It gives a deep orange-yellow color to dishes. It is used to color and flavor sweets, rice dishes and drinks. For a strong aroma and bright orange color, lightly toast the saffron veins in a dry frying pan over low heat, then grind to a powder and stir in a tablespoon of warm milk. Then pour the milk into the dish to be flavored. Sometimes saffron is sold as a powder, the smell of which is twice as strong as that of saffron veins. According to Ayurveda, saffron has tonic properties and is useful for everyone without exception. It clears the skin, strengthens the heart, and helps with migraines and stomach ulcers. Added to hot milk, saffron makes it easier to digest.The medical use of saffron is extremely wide, for example, it is part of about 300 medicines of Oriental medicine. The most pronounced healing properties are as follows: strengthening the stomach, improving appetite, tonic effect on the body, cleansing the kidneys and bladder, smoothing the skin and improving complexion, strengthening nervous system, heart, liver and respiratory organs. Addendum a small amount saffron in hot milk endows it with truly miraculous qualities - the use of this drink promotes the growth of thin brain tissues, thereby improving memory, mental activity and sharpness of feelings.
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