In plants, such biologically active compounds are formed and deposited mainly in rhizomes, tubers, roots, bulbs, and in the lower parts of above-ground shoots.
Starch is a high molecular weight carbohydrate. Initially, it is formed in the leaves during plant photosynthesis. There, glucose is synthesized from it, and fructose is synthesized from it, which enters other parts of the plant and nourishes them. Secondary starch is formed mainly in the roots.
The second "reserve carbohydrate" of plants is inulin. It circulates in cells in dissolved form. Plants such as dahlia, elecampane are rich in inulin.
In grains and cereals, there is another reserve nutrient - hemicellulose. In animals, glycogen is the most important. It can be deposited in the liver and muscles and used as needed.
Functions of "reserve carbohydrates"
Carbohydrates are the main sources of energy for plants and animals. A person with carbohydrates should receive 50-60% of calories from the daily diet. The main functions of carbohydrates are: energy, protective and structural.Starch does not dissolve in water, so it does not change the osmotic pressure in the cell, does not affect the chemical composition. By simple hydrolysis, it can be converted into glucose.
This issue is of great importance for agriculture and floriculture. When growing agricultural plants and flowers, it is important to take into account fluctuations in the content of reserve nutrients, including carbohydrates.
AT winter period carbohydrate reserves are reduced, and in the autumn before wintering, on the contrary, they increase. The lack of carbohydrates is also observed in early spring. The same is true during the appearance of buds, the development of plant stems. Therefore, it is very important in this period of time to pay special attention to agricultural crops: fight weeds, water, fertilize.
Because of this, it can be said with certainty that “reserve carbohydrates” are indispensable substances for both plants and animals.
Organic matter of the cell. Carbohydrates, lipids
Carbohydrates. The general formula is Сn (H2O)n. Therefore, carbohydrates contain only three chemical elements in their composition.
Water-soluble carbohydrates.
Functions of soluble carbohydrates: transport, protective, signal, energy.
Monosaccharides: glucose- the main source of energy for cellular respiration. Fructose- an integral part of the nectar of flowers and fruit juices. Ribose and deoxyribose- structural elements of nucleotides, which are monomers of RNA and DNA.
Disaccharides: sucrose(glucose + fructose) is the main product of photosynthesis transported in plants. Lactose(glucose + galactose) - is part of the milk of mammals. Maltose(glucose + glucose) - energy source in germinating seeds.
Polymeric carbohydrates: starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin. They are insoluble in water.
Functions of polymeric carbohydrates: structural, storage, energy, protective.
Starch consists of branched spiralized molecules that form reserve substances in plant tissues.
Cellulose- a polymer formed by glucose residues, consisting of several straight parallel chains connected by hydrogen bonds. This structure prevents the penetration of water and ensures the stability of the cellulose membranes of plant cells.
Chitin consists of amino derivatives of glucose. The main structural element of the integument of arthropods and the cell walls of fungi.
Glycogen is the storage material of an animal cell. Glycogen is even more branched than starch and highly soluble in water.
Lipids- esters of fatty acids and glycerol. Insoluble in water, but soluble in non-polar solvents. Present in all cells. Lipids are made up of hydrogen, oxygen and carbon atoms. Types of lipids: fats, waxes, phospholipids. Lipid functions: storage- fats are deposited in the stock in the tissues of vertebrates. Energy- half of the energy consumed by the cells of vertebrates at rest is formed as a result of fat oxidation. Fats are also used as a source of water. The energy effect from the breakdown of 1 g of fat is 39 kJ, which is twice the energy effect from the breakdown of 1 g of glucose or protein. Protective- the subcutaneous fat layer protects the body from mechanical damage. Structural – phospholipids are part of cell membranes. Thermal insulation- subcutaneous fat helps to keep warm. electrical insulating- myelin, secreted by Schwann cells (form the sheaths of nerve fibers), isolates some neurons, which many times accelerates the transmission of nerve impulses. Nutritious- some lipid-like substances contribute to the build-up muscle mass maintaining body tone. Lubricating Waxes cover the skin, wool, feathers and protect them from water. The leaves of many plants are covered with a wax coating; wax is used in the construction of honeycombs. Hormonal- adrenal hormone - cortisone and sex hormones are lipid in nature.
TASK EXAMPLES
Part A
A1. A polysaccharide monomer can be:
1) amino acid 3) nucleotide
2) glucose 4) cellulose
A2. In animal cells, the storage carbohydrate is:
1) cellulose 3) chitin
2) starch 4) glycogen
A3. Most energy is released during splitting:
1) 10 g protein 3) 10 g fat
2) 10 g glucose 4) 10 g amino acid
A4. What function do lipids not perform?
energy 3) insulating
catalytic 4) storage
A5. Lipids can be dissolved in:
1) water 3) hydrochloric acid
2) solution table salt 4) acetone
Part B
IN 1. Select the features of the structure of carbohydrates
1) consist of amino acid residues
2) consist of glucose residues
3) consist of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen atoms
4) some molecules have a branched structure
5) consist of fatty acid residues and glycerol
6) consist of nucleotides
IN 2. Select the functions that carbohydrates perform in the body
1) catalytic 4) building
2) transport 5) protective
3) signal 6) energy
VZ. Select the functions that lipids perform in the cell
1) structural 4) enzymatic
2) energy 5) signal
3) storage 6) transport
AT 4. Match the group of chemical compounds with their role in the cell
Part C
C1. Why does not glucose accumulate in the body, but starch and glycogen accumulate?
C2. Why does soap remove grease from hands?
Carbohydrates are organic compounds formed by three chemical elements - carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Some also contain nitrogen or sulfur. The general formula for carbohydrates is Сm(H2O)n.
They are divided into three main classes: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides (disaccharides) and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates having 3-10 carbon atoms. Most of the carbon atoms in a monosaccharide molecule are associated with alcohol groups, and one is with an aldehyde or keto group.
Glucose (grape sugar) is found in all organisms, including in human blood, since it is an energy reserve, it is part of sucrose, lactose, maltose, starch, cellulose and other carbohydrates. Fructose (fruit sugar) is found in the highest concentrations in fruits, honey, sugar beet root crops. It not only takes an active part in metabolic processes, but also is part of sucrose.
Monosaccharides - crystalline substances, sweet in taste and highly soluble in water.
To oligosaccharides include carbohydrates formed by several monosaccharide residues. They are mostly also crystalline, highly soluble in water and sweet in taste. Depending on the amount of these residues, there are disaccharides (two monosaccharide residues), trisaccharides (three), etc.
Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose and maltose. sucrose (beet or cane sugar) consists of residues of glucose and fructose, it in found in the storage organs of some plants. There is especially a lot of sucrose in the root of the fruits of sugar beet and sugar cane, from where they are obtained industrially. lactose, or milk sugar,formed by residues of glucose and galactose, found in mother's and cow's milk. Maltose (malt sugar) consists of two glucose residues. It is formed during the breakdown of starch in plant seeds and in the human digestive system.
Polysaccharides are biopolymers whose monomers are monosaccharide residues. These include starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin, etc. The monomer of these polysaccharides is glucose.
Starch is the basicsa vital reserve substance of plants that accumulates in seeds, fruits, tubers, rhizomes and other storage organs. A qualitative reaction to starch is a reaction with iodine, in which starch turns blue-violet.
Glycogen (animal starch) is a reserve polysaccharide of animals and fungi, which in humans accumulates in the largest quantities in the muscles and liver. Glycogen molecules have a higher degree of branching than starch molecules.
Cellulose or fiber - the main reference polysaccharide of plants. Unbranched cellulose molecules form bundles that are part of the cell walls of plants. It is used in the production of textiles, paper, alcohol and other organic substances.
Chitin is a polysaccharide whose monomer is a nitrogen-containing monosaccharidebased on glucose. It is part of the cell walls of fungi and arthropod shells.
Polysaccharides are powdered substances that are unsweetenedtasteless and insoluble in water.
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Functions of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates perform plastic (construction) in the cell, energygetic, storage and support functions. They form the cell walls of plantsand mushrooms. The energy value splitting of 1 g of carbohydrates is 17.2 kJ. Glucose, fructose, sucrose, starch and glycogen are reserve substances. Carbohydrates canalso be part of complex lipids and proteins, forming glycolipids and glycoproteins.
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Lipids
Lipids is a chemically heterogeneous group of hydrophobic substances. These substances do not dissolve in water, but can dissolve in organic solvents.
They form emulsions in water. Lipids are greasy to the touch, many of them leave characteristic non-drying marks on paper. Along with proteins and carbohydrates, they areone of the main components of cells. The content of lipids in different cells is not the same, especially in the seeds and fruits of some plants, in the liver and heart.
By chemical structure, lipids are divided into fats, waxes, steroids, phospholipids, glycolipids, etc.
Fats, or triacylglycerols,are esters of the trihydric alcohol glycerol and higher fatty acids. The fat molecule has dual properties, since the glycerol residue forms a hydrophilic “head”, and fatty acid residues form hydrophobic “tails”.
Most fatty acids contain 14–22 carbonnative atom. Among them there are both saturated andand unsaturated, that is, containing double bonds.
Steroids have molecules with multiple cycles. These include an obligatory component of cell membranes - cholesterol (cholesterol), hormones estradiol and testosterone. ron, vitamin D.
Phospholipids - polar lipids. In addition to glycerol and fatty acid residues, theyhave a phosphoric acid residue. Phospholipids are the basis of cell membranes and provide their barrier properties.
Waxes are esters of higher fatty acids and high molecular weight alcohols. In plants, they form a film on the surface of organs - leaves, fruits. These connectionsprotect the ground organs of plants from excessive moisture loss, prevent the penetration of pathogens, etc. In insects, they cover the body or serve to build honeycombs.
Glycolipids are also components of membranes, but their content there is low.The non-lipid portion of glycolipids includes a carbohydrate residue.
Functions of lipids.
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Reserve - fats are deposited in the stock in the tissues of vertebrates.
Energy
- half of the energy consumed by the cells of vertebrates at rest is formed as a result of fat oxidation. Fats are also used as a source of water. The energy effect from the breakdown of 1 g of fat is 39 kJ, which is twice the energy effect from the breakdown of 1 g of glucose or protein.
Protective
- the subcutaneous fat layer protects the body from mechanical damage.
Structural
Phospholipids are part of cell membranes.
Thermal insulation
- subcutaneous fat helps to keep warm.
electrical insulating
- myelin, secreted by Schwann cells (form the sheaths of nerve fibers), isolates some neurons, which many times accelerates the transmission of nerve impulses.
Nutritious
- Some lipid-like substances contribute to building muscle mass, maintaining body tone.
Lubricating
Waxes cover the skin, wool, feathers and protect them from water. The leaves of many plants are covered with a wax coating; wax is used in the construction of honeycombs.
Hormonal
- adrenal hormone - cortisone and sex hormones are lipid in nature. 2) starch
3) chitin
4) glycogen
A3. Most energy is released during splitting:
1) 10 g protein
2) 10 g glucose
3) 10 g fat
4) 10 g amino acid
A4. What function do lipids not perform?
1) energy
2) catalytic
3) insulating
4) storage
A5. Lipids can be dissolved in:
1) water
2) salt solution
3) hydrochloric acid
4) acetone
Part B
IN 1. Select the features of the structure of carbohydrates
1) consist of amino acid residues
2) consist of glucose residues
3) consist of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen atoms
4) some molecules have a branched structure
5) consist of fatty acid residues and glycerol
6) consist of nucleotides
IN 2. Select the functions that carbohydrates perform in the body
1) catalytic
2) transport
3) signal
4) building
5) protective
6) energy
VZ. Select the functions that lipids perform in the cell
1) structural
2) energy
3) storage
4) enzymatic
5) signal
6) transport
AT 4. Match the group of chemical compounds with their role in the cell:
ROLE OF THE COMPOUND IN THE CELL | COMPOUND |
|
|
Part C
C1. Why does not glucose accumulate in the body, but starch and glycogen accumulate?
Test 2
Part 1 contains 10 tasks (A1-10). Each question has 4 possible answers, one of which is correct.
Part 1
A 1. Monosaccharide, the molecule of which contains five carbon atoms
1. glucose
2. fructose
3. galactose
4. deoxyribose
A 2. Chemical bond connecting the residues of glycerol and higher fatty acids in a fat molecule
1. covalent polar
2. covalent non-polar
4. hydrogen
A 3. The monomer of starch and cellulose is
1. glucose
2. glycerin
3. nucleotide
4. amino acid
A 4. Which of the substances will dissolve lipids
3. physiological saline
4. hydrochloric acid
A 5. Winter hardiness of plants increases with accumulation in cells:
1. starch
3. sugars
4. mineral salts
A 6. What foods contain the most carbohydrates needed by a person?
1. in cheese and cottage cheese
2. bread and potatoes
3. meat and fish
4. vegetable oil
A 7. The end products of glycogen in the cell are
1. ATP and water
2. oxygen and carbon dioxide
3. water and carbon dioxide
4. ATP and oxygen
A 8. The reserve carbohydrate in the animal cell is
1. starch
2. glycogen
3. cellulose
A 9. Juice that does not contain enzymes, but facilitates the absorption of fats in the small intestine
1. gastric juice
2. pancreatic juice
3. intestinal juice
A 10. In humans, food carbohydrates begin to be digested in
1. duodenum
2. oral cavity
3. stomach
4. large intestine
Part 2 contains 8 tasks (B1-B8): 3 - with the choice of three correct answers out of six, 3 - for correspondence, 2 - for establishing the sequence of biological processes, phenomena, objects.
Part 2
B 1. Lipids found only in animals
1. cholesterol
2. lipoproteins
3. triglycerides
4. phospholipids
5. bile acids
6. testosterone
B 2. Monosaccharides are
2. sucrose
3. lactose
4. glucose
5. maltose
6. galactose
AT 3. Complex organic compounds, the molecule of which includes a carbohydrate component
1. ribonucleotides
2. phospholipids
3. deoxyribonucleotides
4. amino acids
5. adenosine triphosphate
6. cholesterol
B 4. Forms of carbohydrates in plant and animal cells
Cell Carbohydrate
A) plant cells 1. glycogen
B) animal cells 2. starch
3. cellulose
4. heparin
B 5. Establish a correspondence between the characteristic and organic matter
Characteristic Organic matter
1. Composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen A. Carbohydrates
2. Low thermal conductivity B. Fats
3. Form biopolymers - polysaccharides
4. Provide interaction of cells of the same type
5. They are all non-polar
6. Practically insoluble in water
B 6. Establish a correspondence between a carbohydrate and the group of carbohydrates to which they belong
Carbohydrate name Carbohydrate group
1. Glucose A. monosaccharides
2. Sucrose B. Disaccharides
3. Galactose B. Polysaccharides
4. Starch
5. Maltose
6. Lactose
B 7. Arrange monosaccharides in ascending order of the number of carbon atoms in their molecule
1. dihydroxyacetone (ketose)
2. glucose
3. elythrose threose
5. glucosamine
6. Frame-O
B 8. Arrange fats in ascending order of carbon atoms in their molecule
1. tripalmitin
2. tristearin
3. trilaurin
4. tricaprylin
5. trimyristin
Part 3 contains 6 tasks. For task C1, give a short free answer, and for tasks C2-C6 - a full detailed answer.
Part 3
С 1. What role do phospholipids and glycolipids play for living organisms?
C 2. Indicate the numbers of proposals in which errors were made. Explain them.
1. Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon and hydrogen.
2. There are three classes of carbohydrates - monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.
3. The most common monosaccharides are sucrose and lactose.
4. They are water soluble and have a sweet taste.
5. When 1 g of glucose is broken down, 35.2 kJ of energy is released
C 3. What are the functions of carbohydrates in plant cells?
C 4. Explain why the storage function is performed by polysaccharides, and not monosaccharides?
Answers:
Part 1
A1-4 A6-2
A2-1 A7-3
A3-1 A8-2
A4-2 A9-4
A5-3 A10-2
Part 2
B1-1 3 4
B2-1 4 6
B3-1 3 5
B4 -A 2 3, B 1 4
B5-A 1 3 4, B 2 5 6
V6-A1 3, B 2 5 6, V 4
B7-1 3 4 2 5 6
B8-4 3 5 1 2
Part 3
C 1. Phospholipids and glycolipids are components of cell membranes.
C 2. 1. carbon and water.
3. disaccharides.
5. 17.6 kJ
C 3. 1. Monosaccharides and disaccharides perform an energy function.
2. Starch is a reserve nutrient.
3. Cellulose is part of the cell walls.
C 4. 1. Since polysaccharides are insoluble in water, they do not have an osmotic and chemical effect on the cell.
2. In the solid and dehydrated state, they have a smaller volume and a larger useful mass.
3. Less accessible to pathogenic bacteria and fungi, since these organisms absorb food rather than swallow it.
4. If necessary, they are easily converted into monosaccharides.
Glycogen, or animal starch, is a highly branched reserve polysaccharide consisting of glucose residues.[ ...]
Glycogen (Gl) is a polymeric hydrocarbon that accumulates in heterotrophic organisms during the processing of industrial effluents rich in hydrocarbons, or in FAO along with PNO. The accumulation and consumption of glycogen and PNO in the FAO occurs in antiphase: while one substance is being created, the other is consumed (see Fig. 3.15). The accumulation of glycogen has a long-term effect on the biomass in the reactor, as it can provide energy for 1-2 days.[ ...]
Glycogen is a form of carbohydrate stored in cells.[ ...]
Fats, starch and glycogen are the reserve nutrients of the cell and the body as a whole. Glucose, fructose, sucrose and other sugars are part of the roots and leaves, fruits of plants. Glucose is an essential component of the blood plasma of humans and many animals. When carbohydrates and fats are broken down in the body, a large amount of energy is released, which is necessary for vital processes.[ ...]
Of the other carbohydrates, mushrooms contain glycogen (a type of starch), which is characteristic only for animal organisms.[ ...]
Glycogen accumulates in animal and human cells. This polysaccharide differs from starch in the greater branching of its molecules. Especially a lot of glycogen is found in liver cells, as well as in muscles.[ ...]
According to the studies of the Japanese chemists M. Migita and T. Hanaoka (1937), glycogen is formed mainly in the liver and accumulates in it the more, the greater the mass of the liver itself. The content of glycogen in the muscles of fish is (in percent) in chum salmon 1.45; herring 1.29; cod 1.22; flounder 0.96; shark 0.94 and carp 1.34.[ ...]
Of the reserve substances in the cells of most protozoa, glycogen is deposited, in some - fat. Colored Protozoa accumulate starch.[ ...]
At the same time, activation of glycogen synthetase, an enzyme that synthesizes glycogen, occurs as a result of cleavage of phosphoric acid from its molecule, and phosphorylation reduces its activity. Thus, catecholamines, stimulating the formation of cAMP, not only increase the use of glycogen, but also limit its reverse synthesis, directing all glycogen reserves to the energy supply of body functions.[ ...]
The cells of many fungi contain various inclusions. The main reserve substance is glycogen, which is usually evenly distributed in the form of small granules in the cytoplasm of the fungal cell. In the cells of fungi, lipids can be found in the form of droplets, which are called liposomes (microsomes, spherosomes).[ ...]
The main carbohydrates contained in plant foods are starch and cellulose, and in animal foods - glycogen.[ ...]
On the abscissa - time; along the y-axis - changes from the level of rest, D%. 1 - lactic acid, 2 - ATP, 3 - CF, 4 - glycogen.[ ...]
Other bacteria, C-bacteria, or GAO (glycogen-accumulating organisms), can also compete for easily decomposed organic substances with FAO. These bacteria do not accumulate phosphate and do not normally interfere with the phosphorus removal process.[ ...]
Plasmodium is a complex formation. It contains about 75% water, and from the rest about 30% proteins; in addition, it contains glycogen, or animal starch, and pulsating vacuoles. Some slime molds are characterized by the presence a large number lime (up to 28%) or other inclusions. Most slime molds in plasmodia have pigments that give them a variety of colors: bright yellow, pink, red, purple, almost black. At the same time, the color of plasmodium is constant for this type of slime mold, but its intensity is greatly influenced by the reaction of the environment, lighting, temperature, nutrition and other environmental factors. Some pigments are thought to be photoreceptors that play an important role in the development of slime molds. For slime molds with colored plasmodia, light is necessary for the formation of sporulation, which occurs after a period of vegetative growth.[ ...]
During increased muscle activity, in proportion to this activity, the consumption of plasma constituents increases, and glycogen forms meat-pelic acid, which gives the muscle an acidic reaction, while in the lean state the reaction is alkaline. In the breakdown of glycogen and myosin, the final products are, in addition, water and carbonic acid, which, of course, should increase the flow of oxygen and therefore reflexively increase respiration.[ ...]
In addition to granules, the protoplasm of bacteria also contains various inclusions of reserve nutrients, for example, granuloses and glycogen, volutin, fat, and sulfur. The reserve nutrients of the cell are very diverse in their chemical composition: sulfur is an inorganic substance, and from organic compounds, granulose, glycogen and fat are among the nitrogen-free compounds, in contrast to volutin, which includes nitrogen. The protoplasm of some bacteria contains colorants(pigments).[ ...]
In the cytoplasm of a bacterial cell, there are various inclusions that play the role of reserve nutrients: granulose, glycogen and other polysaccharides, fat, polyphosphate granules, or volutin granules, sulfur. The amount of fat can reach 50% of the dry mass in some microbes. The salts contained in the cell sap determine the osmotic pressure, which in bacteria usually reaches 3-6, and in some cases up to 30 atm.[ ...]
Glycolysis continues until hypoxia (of endogenous or exogenous origin) occurs and until the substrate of anaerobic metabolism, glycogen, is exhausted. Only after the end of the period of hypoxia or anoxia, i.e. with the appearance required amount oxygen in the tissues, the process of glycolysis is inhibited and a period of aerobic energy metabolism begins, during which excess lactate is converted into pyruvate either in the muscle itself, or most of it enters the liver - the main organ of gluconeogenesis and here "almost quantitatively" is processed into glucose or glycogen. Consequently, aerobic oxidation of lactate accumulated in the body and release from its excess should lead to the removal of "fatigue", and not to its development.[ ...]
The product of photosynthesis in the cells of blue-green algae is a glycoprotein, which occurs in the chromatoplasm and is deposited there. Glycoprotein is similar to glycogen - from a solution of iodine in potassium iodide, it becomes brown. Volutin grains in the centroplasm are reserve substances of protein origin. Sulfur grains appear in the plasma of the inhabitants of sulfur reservoirs.[ ...]
In addition to organelles, granules of various shapes and sizes are often found in the cytoplasm. These can be glycogen granules, volutin, granules, fat droplets. All these inclusions play the role of reserve substances and are usually formed if the cell is supplied with a sufficient amount of nutrients. Cells of some types of bacteria contain coloring substances - pigments.[ ...]
During the chemical processes taking place in the muscle, energy is released, which goes to the work done by the muscle, and in this respect carbohydrates (glycogen) play a huge role, providing energy by their combustion. Nitrogenous substances (myosin) are necessary to maintain the essence of the muscle itself. It goes without saying that heat also develops at the same time.[ ...]
In addition to glycerin, insects and some other invertebrates also have other biological antifreezes, both low-molecular (sugars) and high-molecular (proteins, glycogen), due to which, during acclimatization to low temperatures the percentage of bound water increases.[ ...]
At present, there is still no sufficient clarity regarding the interaction of CP with Mg2+ ions. In addition to what has already been described above, one can note its participation in the formation of the CP complex with glycogen, as well as participation in the reaction catalyzed by the kinase by forming the Mg-ATP complex. However, the nature of the effect of free Mg2+ on enzymatic activity is controversial. The available information is rather contradictory. However, other data are also known, which showed that, depending on the concentration of the metal, an activating or inhibitory effect was manifested. A more detailed elucidation of the role of M.%2+ in the mechanisms of regulation of enzyme activity, of course, is of great interest for further research.[ ...]
Polysaccharides have the properties of polymers. Being formed by hundreds or even thousands of monosaccharide units, they are either linear polymers (cellulose) or branched (glycogen).[ ...]
spare substances. As an assimilation product, red algae deposit a polysaccharide called purple starch. By chemical nature, it is closest to amylopectin and glycogen and, apparently, occupies an intermediate position between ordinary starch and glycogen. Crimson starch is deposited in the form of small semi-solid bodies of various shapes and colors. These bodies can be in the form of cones or flat oval plates with a recess on a wide surface. Often you can see concentric zones on them. Grains of purple starch are formed partly in the cytoplasm, partly on the surface of chloroplasts, but they never form inside plastids, unlike the usual starch of green plants. In forms that have a pyrenoid, the latter is to some extent involved in the synthesis of starch.[ ...]
Like animals, fungi are not able to synthesize organic substances from inorganic ones, they do not have plastids and photosynthetic pigments, they accumulate glycogen rather than starch as a reserve nutrient, the cell membrane is built from chitin, and not from cellulose.[ ...]
If microorganisms are deprived of food sources, they can exist for some time at the expense of intracellular reserves. Most microbes store polysaccharides (glycogen and starch) and fat as spare substances. Endogenous respiration due to these substances proceeds along the same path as the oxidation of exogenous energy sources. When nutrient stores are depleted, ‘oxidation of cellular proteins begins.[ ...]
The normal color of the cells is blue-green, but sometimes they can be yellowish or reddish. The presence of pseudo-vacuoles containing gases gives some species the appearance of blackish granules. The reserve product is glycogen. There are no mobile stages.[ ...]
Glucose and fructose are found mainly in berries and fruits, in honey. Mono- and disaccharides are easily soluble in water, quickly absorbed in the digestive tract. Part of the glucose enters the liver, where glycogen is converted into animal starch. Glycogen is a carbohydrate reserve in the body, which, as needs increase, is spent to feed working muscles, organs and systems. Excess carbohydrates turn into fat.[ ...]
An analysis of the content of glycogen in the gonads of S. nuclidus and S. neuritis showed that its concentration is the same during the period of active gametogenesis, which takes place in May and October, and does not depend on the sex of the individual. In the gonads of these species of hedgehogs, glycogen is present in an amount of 2.3-3.3% of the wet tissue mass.[ ...]
Moreover, under conditions of aerobic metabolism, carbohydrate reserves of muscle tissue are preserved due to lipids, which are necessary for work under anaerobic conditions. Therefore, it is possible that after prolonged muscular exercise, during periods of fatigue, and in bony fish, glycogen is most likely used in the anaerobic phase of energy metabolism. This issue requires further study, in particular, it is necessary to simultaneously determine the level of glycogen and lactate in the heart muscle in mild, moderate and acute hypoxia.[ ...]
Carbohydrates are found in foodstuffs in the form of simple and complex compounds. Simple include monosaccharides (glucose, fructose) and disaccharides - sucrose (cane and beet sugar), lactose ( milk sugar). To complex carbohydrates include polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, pectin, fiber).[ ...]
The causative agents of fermentation are butyric acid bacteria that receive energy for life by fermenting carbohydrates. They can ferment various substances - carbohydrates, alcohols and acids, they are able to decompose and ferment even high-molecular carbohydrates - starch, glycogen, dextrins.[ ...]
Perhaps the most surprising is the content of Muller's bodies: it consists mainly of glycogen (animal starch) - the main reserve carbohydrate of animals and fungi. In cecropia (as in other higher plants), the main storage carbohydrates are in the form of starch, while glycogen is synthesized only in Müllerian bodies, and in the early stages of their development, as recent studies using electron microscopy have shown (F. Rickson, 1971, 1974) , there is no glycogen in these formations. A small number of glycogen plastids are also formed in pearl glands - tiny whitish outgrowths that occasionally appear on the petioles and lower surface of the leaves of cecropia and are also eaten by ants.[ ...]
It should be noted that the synthesis of most polysaccharides usually proceeds as a sequential addition of elementary units to growing macromolecules, but the mechanisms of formation of individual polysaccharides can differ significantly. The mechanism of formation of bacterial heteroolisaccharides seems to be more complex.[ ...]
The principal formula of these compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen is St(H20)n. The class of carbohydrates includes sugars: monosaccharides-C6H 206, disaccharides-C12H220M, polysaccharides that form very complex complexes. From polysaccharides for plants essential role starch plays, for animals - glycogen, as well as cellulose, which forms the basis of plant cells.[ ...]
Starving fish do not have a constant supply of nutrients from outside. In order to carry out the metabolism in the most vital organs and tissues, there is a redistribution of nutrients within the body itself between individual organs and tissues. During starvation, reserves (fat, glycogen) are first consumed, which are always present in the body of fish in different quantities. After the use of reserves (deposits), the processing of organs and tissues less important for the life of fish takes place. A starving fish gradually “eats itself”. But this happens in such a way that the most vital organs and tissues are preserved the longest. For example, the brain and nervous system, as well as the heart, retain their normal functions for the longest time. This order of "self-eating" is an expression of the adaptation of fish to the preservation of life under conditions of intermittent feeding. If the fish has the opportunity to eat after a long starvation, then it easily restores the unimportant organs and tissues lost during starvation. She can do this only thanks to the preserved most vital organs - nervous system, heart, respiratory organs.[ ...]
Mushrooms have been known as food since ancient times. The main thing that distinguishes mushrooms from others food products, is a characteristic smell and a pleasant sweetish aftertaste due to the presence of aromatic substances, grape sugar, glucose, mannitol, mycosis, or mushroom sugar. Mushrooms contain substances: chitin, glycogen, urea, proteins, sugars, fats, acids (oxalic, fumaric, malic, tartaric, gelvelic, hydrocyanic). Enzymes remain active in dried mushrooms. C - 1...7. Chanterelles contain up to 4 mg% carotene. In terms of the amount of minerals, mushrooms are close to fruits and vegetables, and they contain even more potassium, phosphorus and sulfur. The content of proteins and fats in mushrooms is higher than in bread and cereals. The nutritional value of 100 g of dried porcini mushrooms is 286 calories, which is 2 times more compared to the same mass. chicken eggs. However, the fiber and protein of mushrooms are difficult to digest. Therefore, it is not recommended to eat at a time more than 200 g of fresh, or 100 g of salted, or 20 g of dried mushrooms. Mushrooms serve as a good seasoning for dishes, as they cause increased secretion of gastric juice, and this contributes to better digestion of food.[ ...]
The theoretical prerequisites for such a study are based on the idea that the nutrients in the body of the fish first go to the most necessary vital needs, without which existence is impossible, and then, after these needs are met, they go to the formation of new cells (growth) and deposits (for example, fat, glycogen). The metabolism of fish, providing only the maintenance of these necessary vital needs, was called supporting, metabolism.[ ...]
carbohydrate metabolism in different types fish are somewhat different. Trout and other salmon are the least efficient carbohydrate users. Due to the low production of insulin, their carbohydrate metabolism is diabetic in nature, and if the fish receives rich carbohydrate food for a long time, a symptom of liver glycogen overload develops. For salmon fish the amount of carbohydrates should not exceed 20 ... 30%, and the food for juveniles should contain less carbohydrates.[ ...]
Chondriosomes consist of lipoproteins, which are a co-5th connection of a protein with gas-like substances. The composition of the membranes of yeast cells includes fungal fiber (close to vegetable). Yeast gum goes into the composition of some yeasts that have a sunken shell. In the body of mushrooms, hexatomic alcohol mannnt (7-10% of dry matter), sorbitol and other substances of a carbohydrate-south nature were found. In the cell walls of the yeast nandei mannan.[ ...]
Entry into the body, transformation and excretion. For the action of A., very high concentrations of it in the blood are needed, while the accumulation is slow. Therefore, sudden acute poisoning A. does not happen. A. is partially absorbed by the body: when a rat is exposed to 1-7 mg / kg of (CuH3)gCO and (CH3)gC140, 7% is excreted unchanged, 50% - in the form of CO2; C14 has been found in glycogen, urea, cholesterol, fatty acids, some amino acids, etc. In unchanged form through the lungs and kidneys, the greater part of A. is excreted, the less it has penetrated into the body. So, in white rats at a concentration of A. in the blood of 2310 mg / l, 87% is excreted through the lungs, and 13% undergoes transformations; at a blood concentration of 23 mg / l, 16% is excreted with exhaled air, and 84% undergoes transformations. A similar relationship was found for the human body. Allocation of A. is very extended - therefore, its long-term detection in the blood is possible. After ingestion of 80 mg / kg a day later, A. was still found in the blood. The content of A. in the tissues is approximately 80% of the concentration in the blood (Haggard and others). A is poorly absorbed through healthy skin (Nunziciante and Pinerlo), however, poisoning is known when immobilizing dressings are applied to the skin of patients, in which A was used as a solvent.[ ...]
These are substances that are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen with the fundamental formula This class includes sugars, subdivided into mono- (CvHiO ") and disaccharides (C12H22O11), as well as polysaccharides, in which the molecules simple sugars combined into complex complexes. The most important of the polysaccharides are starch (characteristic of plants), glycogen (characteristic of animals) and fiber (cellulose), which forms the basis of plant cells.[ ...]
Restoration of normal, advanced biochemical ratios, i.e., complete resynthesis of ATP, CF and glycogen and elimination of excess lactic acid, occurs already during rest, when the body "pays" for the anaerobic energy supply of muscle activity. This "retribution", called oxygen debt, is expressed in increased oxygen uptake during the rest period, which makes it possible to oxidize or convert lactic acid into glycogen, and all reparative syntheses. The oxygen debt is always more or less greater than the oxygen deficit (Fig. 10). Increased absorbed oxygen is used not only to provide energy for the resynthesis of ATP, CF, glycogen and to eliminate excess lactic acid, but also for the complete restoration of biochemical relationships in muscles that have been disturbed by their increased activity. If during muscular work the oxygen demand is not fully satisfied, then myoglobin loses its oxygen, proteins, phospholipids and even some subcellular structures, for example, part of the mitochondria, are destroyed. All this requires restoration, which means additional absorption of oxygen, which is, as it were, “interest” on a debt that also needs to be paid.[ ...]
It is interesting to note that in many species of the genus Panaeolus (Papaeolus) a substance of an indole nature, serotonin (5-hydroxytrypt-amine), was found. It is also found in animal organisms, where its main function is to regulate the tone of the renal vessels. In mushrooms from different genera, derivatives of betaine, a quaternary ammonium base, trigonellin and gomarin, were found, which were also previously known only in animals. Here one of the similar features of the metabolism of fungi and animals is found. It is also known that the storage substance in fungal cells - glycogen - is also characteristic of an animal cell and is not found in most other plants. The cell membrane of most fungi does not contain cellulose, as is typical for plants, but chitin, a substance similar in composition to insect chitin. On the basis of such facts, a hypothesis has been put forward that fungi are closer to animal organisms than to plant ones, and they are proposed to be separated into an independent fungal kingdom Mycola along with the kingdoms of plants and animals.[ ...]
Carbohydrates are the most important source of energy in the body, which is released as a result of redox reactions. It has been established that the oxidation of 1 g of carbohydrate is accompanied by the formation of energy in the amount of 4.2 kcal. Cellulose is not digested in the gastrointestinal tract of vertebrates due to the lack of a hydrolyzing enzyme. It is digested only in the body of ruminants (large and small cattle, camels, giraffes and others). As for starch and glycogen, they are easily broken down by amylase enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract of mammals. Glycogen in the gastrointestinal tract is broken down to glucose and some maltose, but in animal cells it is broken down by glycogen phosphorylase to form glucose-1-phosphate. Finally, carbohydrates serve as a kind of nutritional reserve of cells, being stored in them in the form of glycogen in animal cells and starch in plant cells.
2. in the composition of gastric juice there is acid
3. most inorganic substances are present in the liquid media of living organisms in the form ...
4. in sea water, blood plasma and in the cavity fluid of many animals, a substance is contained in a concentration of 0.9
5.metals are often part of the "active centers"
6. solubility of substances in water
7. insolubility of substances in water
8.organic matter is the main source of energy in cells
9. chemical elements that make up carbohydrates
10.number of molecules in monosaccharides
11.number of monomers in polysaccharides
12.glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose are classified as substances
13.monomer of polysaccharides
14. starch, chitin, cellulose, glycogen belong to the group of substances
14.reserve carbohydrate of plants
15. animal reserve carbohydrate
16.structural carbohydrate in plants
17 structural carbohydrate in animals
Alena1999Belikova / 07 July 2014, 22:40:55
Please help out. Compare plant and animal cells. I will write in the form of a table, and you put down the pros and cons.Parts and organelles of a cell Plant cell Animal cell
1. Cytoplasm
2. Microbodies
3. Flagella / cilia
4. Chromosomes
5. Spherosomes
6. Informosomes
7. Nucleoli
julia1234 / May 07, 2015 at 0:44:08 AM
Tell me who knows!!!
1. What is formed as a result of the anoxic stage of the breakdown of carbohydrates in animal cells with a lack of oxygen?
2. What is formed as a result of the anoxic stage of the decomposition of carbohydrates in the cells of plants, fungi with a lack of oxygen?
3. How much energy is generated during glycolysis?
4. How much energy is produced during cellular respiration?
AnnaPochankina / May 1, 2013, 3:40:16 AM
Help me please! I PLEASE THIS IS VERY IMPORTANT 1. List the signs characteristic of multicellularanimals.
Power type
Features of the structure of the cell membrane
Reserve carbohydrate
Ratio of outer surface area to volume
Ability to move
2. Numbers to letters
A - unicellular animals
B - multicellular animals
1 The body is usually able to actively travel long distances.
2 The cell is able to solve all the tasks that ensure its vital activity and reproduction.
3 Organisms do not die naturally.
4 An organism is usually able to reproduce many times.
5 The body is protected from adverse environmental conditions due to the capabilities of the cell membrane and through the transition to deep suspended animation.
6 The organism is able to cover very long distances only passively.
7 A single cell is usually not capable of autonomous existence.
8 An organism has a small ratio of external surface area to volume.
9 The organism dies a natural death, the cell may have a programmed death.
10 The body is very rarely able to go into deep suspended animation.
11 An organism has a large ratio of external surface area to volume.
3. An analogy to herbaceous life forms in plants is pedogenesis in animals. What do organisms gain from this, and why is this gain more important for plants than for animals (there are a lot of herbs, pedogenesis is rare)?
4. What external prerequisites have developed on Earth that forced organisms to move to a multicellular structure?
5. Why do organisms with a low level of organization coexist with more progressive ones?
6. In which realm and why is regeneration better?
7. Choose from each pair an organism that would be more likely to become an ancestor of other types of organisms; choice explain:
Tit - kiwi
Malarial Plasmodium - Euglena green
8. List the taxa of the animal kingdom.
Nastena1403 / Nov 23 2013, 23:46:31
1. The science that studies the patterns of inheritance of traits. . .2. the ability of living organisms to respond to environmental changes. . .
3.theory according to which in the air life force capable of causing spontaneous generation of life. . .
4. For the first time, proteins were obtained abiogenically from individual amino acids. . .
5. gastric juice contains a) glucose b) amylose c) sulfuric acid d) hydrochloric acid. . .
6.The main building material of the cell. . .
7. monomer of polysaccharides. . .
8.Enzymes are by nature. . .
9. Reserve carbohydrate of plants. . .
10. At what stage of photosynthesis do plants release oxygen. . .
